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Dark sky Olbers' Paradox

by

Eduardo Manuel Alvarez ([1])

The Link To QUR-AN

by

Hussain Omari

Phys. Dept./ Mutah Univ./ Jordan

Olbers’ paradox

 The question about the night’s darkness involves not only a difficult topic by itself, but a truly essential one, as it is intimately connected with the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole. Assuming an infinite old universe with stars scattered more or less randomly throughout infinite space -the usual model since the end of medieval times- the night sky should not be dark as it obviously has ever been.

This evident contradiction between theory and reality became generically known as “Olbers’ paradox”, after the German amateur astronomer who wrote about it in 1823. Being his own explanation neither the first, nor the last, and even wrong, Heinrich Olbers’ objective merits look quite disproportionate for such a tribute, thus seeming like the scientific community actually got two paradoxes for the price of one.

Olbers1

Under clear skies, the starry night appears wearing its very best party dress. Having the chance to ever observe it, urban citizens usually get immediately captured by its majestic beauty and begin wondering about its endless mysteries. Any kind of deep questions could consequently arise  

Newton thought that the universe had to be a static, infinitely old, unlimited expanse of stars homogeneously distributed. This model effectively resolved the otherwise problematic appearance of a privilege centre of gravity -in a non homogenous universe large gravitational forces would not be compensated at all[1]- but failed to solve the riddle of the sky darkness (which consequently became posed).

We now know that space and time are no longer independent entities as previously thought, but integrate a single reality called spacetime. According to Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, spacetime has the property to grip mass, telling it how to move, while at the same time mass grips spacetime, telling it how to curve. The geometry and history of our universe are currently described firmly buttressed on those foundations.

By joining together theoretical solutions derived from General Relativity, with practical compelling evidence obtained from our best observational instruments, most cosmologists agree that our universe (that is, all the space, matter, time, and energy) was “created” in a singular episode called the Big Bang, some 13.7 billion years ago, and it has been expanding ever since.

This is emphasized by QUR-AN:

وتؤكّد الآيات والأحاديث أنَّ السّموات والأرض كانتا رتقاً عند بداية الخلق (أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. وأمّا الآن فهنَّ بسط وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

"Do not the Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Samaa: upper part of universe) and the Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe) were Ratq (joined, coupled), before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).

The Arabic word (Ratq), implies that at early stages of Universe, matter used to have smeared and continuous mass distribution with high density, and both matter and radiation were coupled together.  Later on, God clove them asunder (Fatq): Implying that matter had started clumping and holding together to help forming seven distinct firmaments (Samawat) and seven interior levels of  Ardh (very likely to be seven distinct shells of dark matter).  Also, later the universe became transparent, and matter is no more coupled to radiation (Fatq).  Consequently Samaa (Upper part of Universe) and  Ardh (Interior part of Universe) are decoupled; each into seven distinct and probably concentric spherical shells.  The seven Ardhean (plural of  Ardh: Ground) mentioned by authentic hadiths (Prophet's sayings) are seven distinct levels.  It is possible that galaxies and clusters of galaxies are distributed over Ardhean.  As such, Ardhean represent a major part of the cosmic dark matter that supports forming gravitationally bounded galaxies and clusters ([i]).

Expanding:

- (وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ * وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) ] 48-47 الذّاريات[.

" We have built The Samaa - Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out  Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 48).

And We indeed Have vast power and force; to build the Samaa (sky, firmaments, space) via expansion and to keep on its expansion.

 (وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ): وَالأرْضَ: تعني الأرضين السّبع (seven concentric spherical shells of cold dark matter)؛ الحاضن الجاذبي للمجرّات (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

"And We indeed Have vast power; to expand it".  This interprets as: ALLAH constructs Samaa via expansion ([ii]).  ALLAH create and elevate Samaa with vast force and power, and We (ALLAH) are able to expand it as We desire ([iii]).  We are able to expand, as We expand its construction ([iv]).

(أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا * رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا فَسَوَّاهَا * وأغطش ليلها وأخرج ضحاها) [النّازعات 27-29]

إنّ التّفسير الفلكي لظلمة اللّيل (وأغطش ليلها) هو التّوسّع الّذي ينتج عنه تبرُّد الكون ومجانبته لحالة الاتزان الحراري الثيرموديناميكي (60).

 [27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.  [29] Its night doth He endow with darkness, and its splendour doth He bring out (with sun light).    (An-Nazi'at chapter 79).

Regarding this widely accepted model, Olbers’ paradox has now become resolved. However, the long and winding road actually travelled towards its definite solution is still worthily to be known, not only for being very instructive by itself, but at least as a deserved tribute to all other unreferenced road-makers.

The darkness of the sky is pointed out by QUR-AN

QUR-AN mentions the night (or night time) about 92 times.  Also in the holy QUR-AN, ALLAH swears by the night five times!.  This is more than enough to direct our attention to think about this important phenomena.  ALLAH swears by the night in the following five verses:

السورة

رقم السورة

Surah

(chapter) No.

رقم الآية

Ayah (Verse) No.

الآية

The Verse

المدثر

74

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

33

وَاللَّيْلِ إِذْ أَدْبَرَ

And by the Night as it retreateth,

أَيْ وَلَّى وَكَذَلِكَ " دَبَرَ " .

وَقَالَ بَعْض أَهْل اللُّغَة : دَبَرَ اللَّيْل : إِذَا مَضَى , وَأَدْبَرَ : أَخَذَ فِي الْإِدْبَار .

وَقَالَ مُجَاهِد : سَأَلْت اِبْنَ عَبَّاس عَنْ قَوْله تَعَالَى : " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا دَبَرَ " فَسَكَتَ حَتَّى إِذَا دَبَرَ قَالَ : يَا مُجَاهِد , هَذَا حِينَ دَبَرَ اللَّيْل .

وَقَرَأَ مُحَمَّد بْن السَّمَيْقَع " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا أَدْبَرَ " بِأَلِفَيْنِ , وَكَذَلِكَ فِي مُصْحَف عَبْد اللَّه وَأُبَيّ بِأَلِفَيْنِ .

وَقَالَ قُطْرُب مَنْ قَرَأَ " دَبَرَ " فَيَعْنِي أَقْبَلَ , مِنْ قَوْل الْعَرَب دَبَرَ فُلَان : إِذَا جَاءَ مِنْ خَلْفِي . قَالَ أَبُو عَمْرو : وَهِيَ لُغَة قُرَيْش . وَقَالَ اِبْن عَبَّاس فِي رِوَايَة عَنْهُ : الصَّوَاب : " أَدْبَرَ " , إِنَّمَا يَدْبَر ظَهْر الْبَعِير . وَاخْتَارَ أَبُو عُبَيْد : " إِذَا أَدْبَرَ " قَالَ : لِأَنَّهَا أَكْثَر مُوَافَقَة لِلْحُرُوفِ الَّتِي تَلِيه ; أَلَا تَرَاهُ يَقُول : " وَالصُّبْح إِذَا أَسْفَرَ " , فَكَيْفَ يَكُون أَحَدهمَا " إِذْ " وَالْآخَر " إِذَا " وَلَيْسَ فِي الْقُرْآن قَسَم تَعْقُبهُ " إِذْ " وَإِنَّمَا يَتَعَقَّبهُ " إِذَا " .

التكوير

81

17

And by the Night as it dissipates (or darkens);

قَالَ الْفَرَّاء : أَجْمَعَ الْمُفَسِّرُونَ عَلَى أَنَّ مَعْنَى عَسْعَسَ أَدْبَرَ ; حَكَاهُ الْجَوْهَرِيّ . وَقَالَ بَعْض أَصْحَابنَا : إِنَّهُ دَنَا مِنْ أَوَّله وَأَظْلَمَ وَكَذَلِكَ السَّحَاب إِذَا دَنَا مِنْ الْأَرْض . الْمَهْدَوِيّ : " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا عَسْعَسَ " أَدْبَرَ بِظَلَامِهِ ; عَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس وَمُجَاهِد وَغَيْرهمَا . وَرُوِيَ عَنْهُمَا أَيْضًا وَعَنْ الْحَسَن وَغَيْره : أَقْبَلَ بِظَلَامِهِ . زَيْد بْن أَسْلَمَ : " عَسْعَسَ " ذَهَبَ . الْفَرَّاء : الْعَرَب تَقُول عَسْعَسَ وَسَعْسَعَ إِذَا لَمْ يَبْقَ مِنْهُ إِلَّا الْيَسِير . الْخَلِيل وَغَيْره : عَسْعَسَ اللَّيْل إِذَا أَقْبَلَ أَوْ أَدْبَرَ . الْمُبَرِّد : هُوَ مِنْ الْأَضْدَاد , وَالْمَعْنَيَانِ يَرْجِعَانِ إِلَى شَيْء وَاحِد , وَهُوَ اِبْتِدَاء الظَّلَام فِي أَوَّلِهِ , وَإِدْبَاره فِي آخِرِهِ ; وَقَالَ عَلْقَمَة بْن قُرْط : حَتَّى إِذَا الصُّبْح لَهَا تَنَفَّسَا و اِنْجَابَ عَنْهَا لَيْلُهَا وَعَسْعَسَا وَقَالَ رُؤْبَة : يَا هِنْد مَا أَسْرَعَ مَا تَسَعْسَعَا مِنْ بَعْد مَا كَانَ فَتَى سَرَعْرَعَا وَهَذِهِ حُجَّة الْفَرَّاء . وَقَالَ امْرُؤُ الْقَيْس : عَسْعَسَ حَتَّى لَوْ يَشَاء آدَّنَا كَانَ لَنَا مِنْ نَاره مَقْبِسُ فَهَذَا يَدُلّ عَلَى الدُّنُوّ . وَقَالَ الْحَسَن وَمُجَاهِد : عَسْعَسَ : أَظْلَمَ , قَالَ الشَّاعِر : حَتَّى إِذَا مَا لَيْلهنَّ عَسْعَسَا رَكِبْنَ مِنْ حَدّ الظَّلَام حِنْدِسًا الْمَاوَرْدِيّ : وَأَصْل الْعُسّ الِامْتِلَاء ; وَمِنْهُ قِيلَ لِلْقَدَحِ الْكَبِير عُسّ لِامْتِلَائِهِ بِمَا فِيهِ , فَأُطْلِقَ عَلَى إِقْبَال اللَّيْل لِابْتِدَاءِ اِمْتِلَائِهِ ; وَأُطْلِقَ عَلَى إِدْبَاره لِانْتِهَاءِ اِمْتِلَائِهِ عَلَى ظَلَامِهِ ; لِاسْتِكْمَالِ اِمْتِلَائِهِ بِهِ . .... وَيُقَال لِلذِّئْبِ الْعَسْعَس وَالْعَسْعَاس وَالْعَسَّاس ; لِأَنَّهُ يَعُسّ بِاللَّيْلِ وَيَطْلُب . وَيُقَال لِلْقَنَافِذِ الْعَسَاعِس لِكَثْرَةِ تَرَدُّدهَا بِاللَّيْلِ . قَالَ أَبُو عَمْرو : وَالتَّعَسْعُس الشَّمّ , وَأَنْشَدَ : كَمَنْخِرِ الذَّنْب إِذَا تَعَسْعَسَا وَالتَّعَسْعُس أَيْضًا : طَلَب الصَّيْد [ بِاللَّيْلِ ] . (القرطبي)

 

الانشقاق

84

17

And by the Night and what it covers (or holds)

أَيْ جَمَعَ وَضَمَّ وَلَفَّ . ... فَاللَّيْل يَجْمَع وَيَضُمّ مَا كَانَ مُنْتَشِرًا بِالنَّهَارِ فِي تَصَرُّفِهِ . هَذَا مَعْنَى قَوْل اِبْن عَبَّاس وَمُجَاهِد وَمُقَاتِل وَغَيْرهمْ ; ... فَإِذَا جَلَّلَ اللَّيْل الْجِبَال وَالْأَشْجَار وَالْبِحَار وَالْأَرْض فَاجْتَمَعَتْ لَهُ , فَقَدْ وَسَقَهَا . وَالْوَسْق : ضَمُّك الشَّيْء بَعْضه إِلَى بَعْض , تَقُول : وَسَقْته أَسِقهُ وَسْقًا . وَمِنْهُ قِيلَ لِلطَّعَامِ الْكَثِير الْمُجْتَمِع : وَسْق , وَهُوَ سِتُّونَ صَاعًا . وَطَعَام مُوسَق : أَيْ مَجْمُوع , وَإِبِل مُسْتَوْسِقَة أَيْ مُجْتَمِعَة . .. وَقَالَ عِكْرِمَة : " وَمَا وَسَقَ " أَيْ وَمَا سَاقَ مِنْ شَيْء إِلَى حَيْثُ يَأْوِي , فَالْوَسْق بِمَعْنَى الطَّرْد , وَمِنْهُ قِيلَ لِلطَّرِيدَةِ مِنْ الْإِبِل وَالْغَنَم وَالْحُمْر : وَسِيقَة . ... وَعَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس : " وَمَا وَسَقَ " أَيْ وَمَا جَنَّ وَسَتَرَ . وَعَنْهُ أَيْضًا : وَمَا حَمَلَ , وَكُلّ شَيْء حَمَلْته فَقَدْ وَسَقْته , وَالْعَرَب تَقُول : لَا أَفْعَلهُ مَا وَسَقَتْ عَيْنَيَّ الْمَاء , أَيْ حَمَلَتْهُ . وَوَسَقَتْ النَّاقَة تَسِق وَسْقًا : أَيْ حَمَلَتْ وَأَغْلَقَتْ رَحِمهَا عَلَى الْمَاء , فَهِيَ نَاقَة وَاسِق , وَنُوق وِسَاق مِثْل نَائِم وَنِيَام , وَصَاحِب وَصِحَاب , قَالَ بِشْر بْن أَبِي خَازِم : أَلَظَّ بِهِنَّ يَحْدُوهُنَّ حَتَّى تَبَيَّنَتْ الْحِيَال مِنْ الْوِسَاق وَمَوَاسِيق أَيْضًا . وَأَوْسَقْت الْبَعِير : حَمَّلْته حِمْله , وَأَوْسَقَتْ النَّخْلَة : كَثُرَ حَمْلهَا . وَقَالَ يَمَان وَالضَّحَّاك وَمُقَاتِل بْن سُلَيْمَان : حَمَلَ مِنْ الظُّلْمَة . قَالَ مُقَاتِل : أَوْ حَمَلَ مِنْ الْكَوَاكِب . الْقُشَيْرِيّ : وَمَعْنَى حَمَلَ : ضَمَّ وَجَمَعَ , وَاللَّيْل يُجَلِّل بِظُلْمَتِهِ كُلّ شَيْء فَإِذَا جَلَّلَهَا فَقَدْ وَسَقَهَا . وَيَكُون هَذَا الْقَسَم قَسَمًا بِجَمِيعِ الْمَخْلُوقَات , لِاشْتِمَالِ اللَّيْل عَلَيْهَا , كَقَوْلِهِ تَعَالَى : " فَلَا أُقْسِم بِمَا تُبْصِرُونَ وَمَا لَا تُبْصِرُونَ " [ الْحَاقَّة : 38 - 39 ] . وَقَالَ اِبْن جُبَيْر : " وَمَا وَسَقَ " أَيْ وَمَا عُمِلَ فِيهِ , يَعْنِي التَّهَجُّد وَالِاسْتِغْفَار بِالْأَسْحَارِ , قَالَ الشَّاعِر : وَيَوْمًا تَرَانَا صَالِحِينَ وَتَارَة تَقُوم بِنَا كَالْوَاسِقِ الْمُتَلَبِّب أَيْ كَالْعَامِلِ (القرطبي).

الفجر

89

4

أَقْسَمَ بِاللَّيْلِ عَلَى الْعُمُوم . وَمَعْنَى " يَسْرِي " أَيْ يُسْرَى فِيهِ كَمَا يُقَال : لَيْل نَائِم , وَنَهَار صَائِم . قَالَ : لَقَدْ لُمْتِنَا يَا أُمَّ غَيْلَانَ فِي السُّرَى وَنِمْت وَمَا لَيْل الْمَطِيِّ بِنَائِمِ وَمِنْهُ قَوْله تَعَالَى : " بَلْ مَكْر اللَّيْل وَالنَّهَار " [ سَبَأ : 33 ] . وَهَذَا قَوْل أَكْثَر أَهْل الْمَعَانِي , وَهُوَ قَوْل الْقُتَبِيّ وَالْأَخْفَش . وَقَالَ أَكْثَر الْمُفَسِّرِينَ : مَعْنَى " يَسْرِي " : سَارَ فَذَهَبَ . وَقَالَ قَتَادَة وَأَبُو الْعَالِيَة : جَاءَ وَأَقْبَلَ . وَرُوِيَ عَنْ إِبْرَاهِيم : " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا يَسْرِ " قَالَ : إِذَا اِسْتَوَى . وَقَالَ عِكْرِمَة وَالْكَلْبِيّ وَمُجَاهِد وَمُحَمَّد بْن كَعْب فِي قَوْله : " وَاللَّيْل " : هِيَ لَيْلَة الْمُزْدَلِفَة خَاصَّة لِاخْتِصَاصِهَا بِاجْتِمَاعِ النَّاس فِيهَا لِطَاعَةِ اللَّه . وَقِيلَ : لَيْلَة الْقَدْر لِسَرَايَةِ الرَّحْمَة فِيهَا , وَاخْتِصَاصهَا بِزِيَادَةِ الثَّوَاب فِيهَا . وَقِيلَ : إِنَّهُ أَرَادَ عُمُوم اللَّيْل كُلّه .  قُلْت : وَهُوَ الْأَظْهَر , كَمَا تَقَدَّمَ . وَاَللَّه أَعْلَم . وَقَرَأَ اِبْن كَثِير وَابْن مُحَيْصِن وَيَعْقُوب " يَسْرِي " بِإِثْبَاتِ الْيَاء فِي الْحَالَيْنِ , عَلَى الْأَصْل ; لِأَنَّهَا لَيْسَتْ بِمَجْزُومَةٍ , فَثَبَتَتْ فِيهَا الْيَاء . وَقَرَأَ نَافِع وَأَبُو عَمْرو بِإِثْبَاتِهَا فِي الْوَصْل , وَبِحَذْفِهَا فِي الْوَقْف , وَرُوِيَ عَنْ الْكِسَائِيّ . قَالَ أَبُو عُبَيْد : كَانَ الْكِسَائِيّ يَقُول مَرَّة بِإِثْبَاتِ الْيَاء فِي الْوَصْل , وَبِحَذْفِهَا فِي الْوَقْف , اِتِّبَاعًا لِلْمُصْحَفِ . ثُمَّ رَجَعَ إِلَى حَذْف الْيَاء فِي الْحَالَيْنِ جَمِيعًا ; لِأَنَّهُ رَأْس آيَة , وَهِيَ قِرَاءَة أَهْل الشَّام وَالْكُوفَة , وَاخْتِيَار أَبِي عُبَيْد , اِتِّبَاعًا لِلْخَطِّ ; لِأَنَّهَا وَقَعَتْ فِي الْمُصْحَف بِغَيْرِ يَاء . قَالَ الْخَلِيل : تَسْقُط الْيَاء مِنْهَا اِتِّفَاقًا لِرُءُوسِ الْآي . قَالَ الْفَرَّاء : قَدْ تَحْذِف الْعَرَب الْيَاء , وَتَكْتَفِي بِكَسْرِ مَا قَبْلهَا . وَأَنْشَدَ بَعْضهمْ : كَفَّاك كَفٌّ مَا تُلِيقُ دِرْهَمًا جُودًا وَأُخْرَى تُعْطِ بِالسَّيْفِ الدَّمَا يُقَال : فُلَان مَا يُلِيق دِرْهَمًا مِنْ جُودِهِ أَيْ مَا يُمْسِكُهُ , وَلَا يَلْصَق بِهِ . وَقَالَ الْمُؤَرِّج : سَأَلْت الْأَخْفَش عَنْ الْعِلَّة فِي إِسْقَاط الْيَاء مِنْ " يَسْرِ " فَقَالَ : لَا أُجِيبك حَتَّى تَبِيت عَلَى بَاب دَارِي سَنَة , فَبِتّ عَلَى بَاب دَاره سَنَة فَقَالَ : اللَّيْل لَا يَسْرِي وَإِنَّمَا يُسْرَى فِيهِ فَهُوَ مَصْرُوف , وَكُلّ مَا صَرَفْته عَنْ جِهَته بَخَسْته مِنْ إِعْرَابه أَلَا تَرَى إِلَى قَوْله تَعَالَى : " وَمَا كَانَتْ أُمُّك بَغِيًّا " [ مَرْيَم : 28 ] , لَمْ يَقُلْ بَغِيَّة ; لِأَنَّهُ صَرَفَهَا عَنْ بَاغِيَة . الزَّمَخْشَرِيّ : وَيَاء " يَسْرِي " تُحْذَف فِي الدَّرَج , اِكْتِفَاء عَنْهَا بِالْكَسْرَةِ , وَأَمَّا فِي الْوَقْف فَتُحْذَف مَعَ الْكَسْرَة . وَهَذِهِ الْأَسْمَاء كُلّهَا مَجْرُورَة بِالْقَسَمِ , وَالْجَوَاب مَحْذُوف , وَهُوَ لَيُعَذَّبَنَّ يَدُلّ عَلَيْهِ قَوْله تَعَالَى : " أَلَمْ تَرَ كَيْف فَعَلَ رَبّك " إِلَى قَوْله تَعَالَى " فَصَبَّ عَلَيْهِمْ رَبّك سَوْط عَذَاب " [ الْفَجْر : 6 - 13 ] . وَقَالَ اِبْن الْأَنْبَارِيّ هُوَ " إِنَّ رَبّك لَبِالْمِرْصَادِ " [ الْفَجْر : 14 ] (القرطبي).

And by the Night when it passeth away;

الشمس

91

4

{4} وَاللَّيْلِ إِذَا يَغْشَاهَا

By the Night as it conceals it (the Sun);

الليل

92

1

أَيْ يُغَطِّي . وَلَمْ يَذْكُر مَعَهُ مَفْعُولًا لِلْعِلْمِ بِهِ . وَقِيلَ : يَغْشَى النَّهَار . وَقِيلَ : الْأَرْض . وَقِيلَ : الْخَلَائِق . وَقِيلَ : يَغْشَى كُلّ شَيْء بِظُلْمَتِهِ  (القرطبي).

By the Night as it conceals (everything: the daytime, ground, earth, creatures);

الضحى

93

2

" سَجَا " مَعْنَاهُ : سَكَنَ قَالَهُ قَتَادَة وَمُجَاهِد وَابْن زَيْد وَعِكْرِمَة . ...  وَقَالَ الضَّحَّاك : " سَجَا " غَطَّى كُلّ شَيْء . قَالَ الْأَصْمَعِيّ : سَجْو اللَّيْل : تَغْطِيَته النَّهَار مِثْلَمَا يُسَجَّى الرَّجُل بِالثَّوْبِ . وَقَالَ الْحَسَن : غَشِيَ بِظَلَامِهِ وَقَالَهُ اِبْن عَبَّاس . وَعَنْهُ : إِذَا ذَهَبَ . وَعَنْهُ أَيْضًا : إِذَا أَظْلَمَ . وَقَالَ سَعِيد بْن جُبَيْر : أَقْبَلَ وَرُوِيَ عَنْ قَتَادَة أَيْضًا . وَرَوَى اِبْن أَبِي نَجِيح عَنْ مُجَاهِد : " سَجَا " اِسْتَوَى . وَالْقَوْل الْأَوَّل أَشْهَر فِي اللُّغَة : " سَجَا " سَكَنَ أَيْ سَكَنَ النَّاس فِيهِ . كَمَا يُقَال : نَهَار صَائِم , وَلَيْل قَائِم . وَقِيلَ : سُكُونه اِسْتِقْرَار ظَلَامِهِ وَاسْتِوَاؤُهُ . وَيُقَال : " وَالضُّحَى . وَاللَّيْل إِذَا سَجَا " : يَعْنِي عِبَاده الَّذِينَ يَعْبُدُونَهُ فِي وَقْت الضُّحَى , وَعِبَاده الَّذِينَ يَعْبُدُونَهُ بِاللَّيْلِ إِذَا أَظْلَمَ . وَيُقَال : " الضُّحَى " : يَعْنِي نُور الْجَنَّة إِذَا تُنَوَّر . " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا سَجَا " : يَعْنِي ظُلْمَة اللَّيْل إِذَا أَظْلَمَ . وَيُقَال : " وَالضُّحَى " : يَعْنِي النُّور الَّذِي فِي قُلُوب الْعَارِفِينَ كَهَيْئَةِ النَّهَار . " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا سَجَا " : يَعْنِي السَّوَاد الَّذِي فِي قُلُوب الْكَافِرِينَ كَهَيْئَةِ اللَّيْل فَأَقْسَمَ اللَّه عَزَّ وَجَلَّ بِهَذِهِ الْأَشْيَاء (القرطبي).

And by the Night when it is still (darkens, conceals everything),

Analysis of the proposed solutions

Since first serious attempts to explain the cause of the night darkness, elaborated more than 400 years ago, many alternative solutions have been candidated to justify why the sky is not seen as fully covered by stars. Most of them have proved to be wrong, as they were based on incorrect models about the universe’s structure and/or its evolution.

A succinct presentation of each one of the more plausible proposed solutions is next discussed, including the author(s) and date(s), an explanation about its main argument and a conclusion evaluating its definite pertinence. The order of the following presentation actually corresponds to the chronological order of appearance (Harrison 2000).

“Starlight is too feeble”: Originally proposed by Englishman Thomas Digges in 1576, it was based in the simple assumption that distant stars, although infinite in number, could be just too faint to be observed. This argument is clearly false, as the combined light of “invisible” stars should itself be visible anyway, which is not the case.

“Dark cosmic wall”: Originally proposed by the great German Johannes Kepler in 1610, it was based in the concept that the universe is not infinite at all, abruptly ending towards a dark boundary that completely surrounds the starry space. Obviously this is not true.

“Stoic finite cosmos”: Originally proposed by the Prussian Otto von Guericke in 1672, by the Irish Agnes Mary Clerke in 1890, and even by the famous American astronomer Harlow Shapley as late as 1917, it was based on the idea that the whole Universe was just a “one-island universe” floating in an infinite void of empty space, that is, the star-populated region supposedly only extents up to a finite size, although the beyond remaining space spans endless. This solution is basically the same as the previous one, just that the “dark cosmic wall” has been replaced by a much more “scientifically-correct” infinite void. Anyway, this model of universe is wrong.

“Geometric effect”: Originally proposed by English scientist Edmund Halley in 1720, it also was the first solution derived after a mathematical analysis of the question. By considering imaginary concentric spheres of increasing radius, forming a series of shells of constant thickness, Halley found that the respective starlight contribution of each shell does not depend on the given radius of the shell[2]. As this reasoning should have concluded that infinite shells would give a bright sky, the proposed solution was to assume that the combined light from distant shells actually resulted obstructed by nearby stars. Wrong argument, as despite the claimed obstruction every line of sight would still end at a star’s surface, and the sky should be very bright anyway.

“Interstellar obscuration”: Originally proposed by Swiss astronomer Jean-Philippe Loys de Chéseaux in 1744, and also subscribed by German Heinrich Olbers in 1823. Realizing that even the furthest stars would anyway contribute with some light to the sky, the darkness was attributed to the non-transparency of the space. This argument is false because any absorbed radiation will gradually heat the blocking material, which in time would end up by radiating light as stars themselves.

“Hierarchical structure”: Originally proposed by British astronomers John Herschel in 1848, and Richard Proctor in 1870, it was based on the idea that matter in the universe tends to become progressively clustered around increasingly larger sizes, thus making that the minimum requested radius for assuring that every line of sight eventually ends at a star’s surface accordingly increases up to become indefinitely large. This argument is at least compatible with our current cosmological believes, although its direct effect on the final night darkness is of relative secondary importance.

“Cosmic age too short”: Originally proposed by American poet Edgar Allan Poe in 1848, and by German astronomer Johann Mädler in 1861. The basic idea was simply that light from distant stars still hasn’t reached us, since light has a finite speed, and the universe a finite age. In 1901, the Scottish mathematician and physicist Lord Kelvin analysed quantitatively the connection between the sky-cover fraction by stars and its relative brightness, concluding that in order to obtain a sky continuously bright as the Sun’s surface, it would be necessary to include all starlight up to a distance of 3,000 trillion light years. As we can not receive any light that has travelled from longer than 13.7 billion years (the present cosmic particle horizon), this proposed solution is really on the right track. 

“Static steady state”: Originally proposed by the American astronomer William MacMillan in 1922. It was based in the assumption that the universe, although infinite in size and time, was in a perpetual state of evolution as matter slowly evolve into radiation, and viceversa (conserving the total energy), thus preventing “autotransforming” starlight from reaching distant locations. This model is incorrect, as shown by the irrefutable evidence of an expanding universe obtained after the 1930s.

“Redshift”: Originally proposed by the American cosmologist Hermann Bondi in 1955. It was based in the fact that starlight from distant regions of the expanding universe becomes affected by the cosmological redshift, so that the arriving carried energy results increasingly weakened as the distance from stellar sources enlarges. This redshift effect effectively accounts for a barely darker sky, but is not one of its principal causes.

“Too little energy”: Originally proposed by American cosmologist Edward Harrison in 1964. It was derived after computing the amount of energy required to create a bright sky, and finding out that it implies an overwhelming large number: the observable universe would need 10 trillion times more energy than it currently shows. This means that even if all matter in the universe were transformed into energy according to Einstein’s famous formula, the night sky would be barely brighter than it really is. This argument is truly one of the few heavy weight solutions to the riddle.

The following table summarizes all major alternatives so far presented:

Proposed solution

Author & Date

Viability

Starlight is too feeble

Digges (1576)

wrong

Dark cosmic wall

Kepler (1610)

wrong

Stoic finite cosmos

Guericke (1672), Clerke (1890),

 Shapley (1917)

wrong

Geometric effect

Halley (1720)

wrong

Interstellar obscuration

Chéseaux (1744), Olbers (1823)

wrong

Hierarchical structure

Herschel (1848), Proctor (1870)

barely applies

Cosmic age too short

Poe (1848), Mädler (1861),

 Kelvin (1901)

truly important

Static steady state

MacMillan (1922)

wrong

Redshift

Bondi (1955)

barely applies

Too little energy

Harrison (1964)

truly important

The final explanation

 As seen, just a few proposed solutions to Olbers’ paradox are compatible with our current cosmological model derived from General Relativity' solutions and its description of the evolution of the universe from its main flagship: the Big Bang.

This definite beginning imposes a finite age for the universe. If it is 13.7 billion years old, then light from stars further away than 13.7 billion light years just has not had enough time to get here. This is true even if the universe is infinite. And we did not even consider the fact that the luminous age of stars is certainly limited, which actually makes “things even worse”.

The scarcity of the contained energy and matter in the whole universe also becomes an independent valid reason to justify its darkness. As the contained amount of energy and matter are intimately related to the way that the universe has actually evolved according to General Relativity (Freedman & Turner 2003), it is the particular developed evolution of the universe which synthesizes at last the final explanation for the Olbers’ paradox.

The darkness effect attributed to the cosmological redshift has been quantitative compared to the darkness effect just originated by the finiteness of the age of the universe in the aforementioned cosmological context (Wesson 1989), resulting that the latter argument is far more important. However, not all scientists agree with that model, and the redshift solution is still the accepted one for those defenders of the “expanding steady- state” theory (Vicino 2003).

Conclusions

The subject of the night darkness is an essential cosmological question, as it is intimately related to the actual architecture of the universe. In fact, the “easy” model of an endless spatial and perpetual universe immediately becomes controversial with our real night.

Many solutions have been proposed to solve the so called Olbers’s paradox, almost each one based on a different explanation for the whole universe. The majority of those models have been proved to be wrong, as they collide to our current cosmological believes.

Nowadays we confidently can assure that there are just two principal factors that separately concur to produce a dark night sky: the universe is too young, and it also contains far less matter than it would be required to. Two other reasons (redshift and hierarchical structure) only contribute to just darken an already dark sky.

The abovely metioned principal factors are clearly addressed by QUR-AN

I- The universe is young

For more physics, one can see (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~plaisted/ce/universe.html)

يقول تعالى: (قُلْ أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَكْفُرُونَ بِالَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَرْضَ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ وَتَجْعَلُونَ لَهُ أَنْدَادًا ذَلِكَ رَبُّ الْعَالَمِينَ  * وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا وَبَارَكَ فِيهَا وَقَدَّرَ فِيهَا أَقْوَاتَهَا فِي أَرْبَعَةِ أَيَّامٍ سَوَاءً لِلسَّائِلِينَ  * ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ  * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ وَأَوْحَى فِي كُلِّ سَمَاءٍ أَمْرَهَا وَزَيَّنَّا السَّمَاءَ الدُّنْيَا بِمَصَابِيحَ وَحِفْظًا ذَلِكَ تَقْدِيرُ الْعَزِيزِ الْعَلِيمِ) [فصلت 9-12].

(Say: "Is it that ye deny Him Who created the  Ardh in two Days (periods)? and do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds." * He set on the (Ardh) Like mountains standing firm, high above it, and bestowed blessings on the  Ardh, and measured therein all things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in four Days (periods), in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (sustenance). * Moreover, He comprehended in His design the sky, and it had been (as) smoke: He said to it and to the  Ardh: "Come ye together, willingly or unwillingly." They said: "We do come (together), in willing obedience." * So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge. ) (S. 41, V. 9-12)

لعلّ المراد بالأرض ما في جهة السّفل (أي الأرضين السّبع).  أمّا الكرة الأرضيّة فربّما كان قد خُلق أصلها ومادّتها.  وقالوا أريد باليومين هنا فترتين زمنيّتين (123-124)  (عمري 2004 : خلق الكون).

إنّ القول بإيجاد الرّواسي يُفسَّرُ بغير الجبال.  ويتّفقُ هذا مع ما ذكره أبو حيّان في البحر المحيط من أنّ دحو الأرض غير خلقها، وقد تأخّر عن خلق السّماء.  وأنّ جعل الرّواسي (الجبال) والبركة في الأرض، وتقدير الأقوات لا يمكن إدخالها في الوجود إلاّ بعد أن صارت الأرضُ موجودة (126).  وإنّ تقدير الخلق قد سبق الخلق بخمسين ألف سنة (1، 2، 3، 9).  لذا يرى الباحثُ (عمري 2004 : خلق الكون) أنّ قوله سبحانه (وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا وَبَارَكَ فِيهَا) قد يشير إلى إحداث عدم تجانس في مادّة الأرضين والّتي هي مادّة مظلمة (Dark matter) أو لربّما هو إشارة إلى بداية خلق مادّة عاديّة بدأت تتشكّل وتتكوّن وترسو في الجزء العلوي من الأرض (الأرض بمعنى جهة السّفل).  أي المادّة الّتي بدأت تتشكّل في أعالي الأرضين السّبع (شكل 2) ؛ أي في الأماكن الأقرب إلى الحيّز الداخلي للبناء السّماوي الأوّل (28، 60، 127).  وهذه المادّة هي أساس البناء في الأرض العليا بعد فتق الأرضين (28).  وربّما تجسّد هذا حاليّا كتغاير طفيف في درجة حرارة إشعاع الخلفيّة الكوني (شكل).  ويراد بالأرض العليا (الأولى) تلك الّتي تحتضن مجرّة درب التّبانة (شكل 2)؛ الّتي توجد فيها مجموعتنا الشّمسيّة (28).  ودليل هذا الفهم قول سبحانه: (وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا).  وقد اختار بعضهم أنّ خلق السّماء مقدّمٌ على خلق الأرض، وأنّ الخلق في الآية تقدير وقضاء الله أن يخلق كرة الأرض (76) في يومين، ولا يرادُ به التّكوين والإيجاد.  وهذا نظير قوله سبحانه (إنّ مثلَ عيسى عند الله كمثل آدم خلقه من ترابٍ ثمّ قال له كن فيكون) [آل عمران 59]، ومحالٌ أن يقال للشيء الّذي وجد كن، بل الخلق عبارة عن التّقدير (128، 129).  وقوله تعالى: (وَقَدَّرَ فِيهَا أَقْوَاتَهَا): أي بيّن خصائص الأرض وقدّر أرزاق ساكنيها ومعايشهم من الجبال والأنهار والمياه والأشجار ...  وقوله (فِي أَرْبَعَةِ أَيَّامٍ سَوَاءً لِلسَّائِلِينَ) أي كلُّ ذلك من خلق الأرض (جهة السّفل؛ أي الأرضين السّبع) وتقدير خلق كرتنا الأرضيّة وما تبعه من تقدير إحلال البركة وتقدير الأقوات كائنٌ في تمام أربعة أيّامٍ- باليومين المتقدّمين- كاملة مستوية لا زيادة فيها ولا نقصان (130).  وقوله سبحانه (ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ) أي استوى إلى مادّة البناء السّماوي وهي في حالة الدّخان (Coupled matter and radiation).  وقوله تعالى (فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا) أي إتيان ما فيهما ممّا ذكر من المنافع، وقيل بيان كيفيّة التكوين إثر بيان كيفيّة التقدير.  (طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا) تمثيلاً لتحتّم تأثير قدرته تعالى فيهما واستحالة امتناعهما من ذلك.  (قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ) أي منقادين كما أمرا على مقتضى الحكمة البالغة.  (فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ) أتقن أمر السّماوات حسبما تقتضيه الحكمةُ البالغة من جعلهنَّ سقفاً مسوّىً محفوظاً مقبّباً في يومين.  وهنا تكون أيّام الخلق السّتّة قد اكتملت وانتهت.

قرب مجرتنا من البناء السماوي الواسع والمتوسع

Our galaxy is close to an inflating smooth spherical shell that surrounds the observable universe.

The Local Group of galaxies, beside some other clusters, and sheets of galaxies are distributed over the top most AROAD that is very close to "SAMA'" (an inflating smooth spherical shell that acts as a boundary for the observable universe).  The MWG is located in the neighborhood of "SAMA'", and is very far away from the massive hot core of the universe (Omari 2004, Omari 1999).  ALLAH, the Merciful God, has chosen for us the MWG which has a location very close to "SAMA'", rather than being close to the core.  Not being aware of "SAMA'", astronomers are likely to be deceived by images; that make the universe to look as if having a larger radius (Omari 1999).  It is possible that the Universe is smaller than the observable universe. In this case, what we take to be very distant galaxies may actually be duplicate images of nearby galaxies, formed by light that has circumnavigated the Universe.  This is likely to be among things indicated by the following verse:  (By the samaa (Firmament) which returns), (Surah 86, verse 11)

ولعلّ هذا بعضٌ من مدلول قوله تعالى (وَالسَّمَاءِ ذَاتِ الرَّجْعِ) (الطارق 11) ، على اعتبار أنّ السّماء هنا هي البناء.

The closeness of Our galaxy from Sama is indicating by the followings hadiths:

- (حَدَّثَنَا سُوَيْدٌ أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ أَخْبَرَنَا سَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ عَنْ أَبِي السَّمْحِ عَنْ عِيسَى بْنِ هِلالٍ الصَّدَفِيِّ عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عَمْرِو بْنِ الْعَاصِ قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهم عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ لَوْ أَنَّ رَصَاصَةً مِثْلَ هَذِهِ وَأَشَارَ إِلَى مِثْلِ الْجُمْجُمَةِ أُرْسِلَتْ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ إِلَى الأرْضِ هِيَ مَسِيرَةُ خَمْسِ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ لَبَلَغَتِ الأرْضَ قَبْلَ اللَّيْلِ وَلَوْ أَنَّهَا أُرْسِلَتْ مِنْ رَأْسِ السِّلْسِلَةِ لَسَارَتْ أَرْبَعِينَ خَرِيفًا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ قَبْلَ أَنْ تَبْلُغَ أَصْلَهَا أَوْ قَعْرَهَا) (قَالَ أَبو عِيسَى هَذَا حَدِيثٌ إِسْنَادُهُ حَسَنٌ صَحِيحٌ وَسَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ هُوَ مِصْرِيٌّ وَقَدْ رَوَى عَنْهُ اللَّيْثُ بْنُ سَعْدٍ وَغَيْرُ وَاحِدٍ مِنَ الأئِمَّةِ. الترمذي كتاب صفة جهنّم رقم 2513) .

- (حَدَّثَنَا عَلِيُّ بْنُ إِسْحَاقَ أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ أَخْبَرَنَا سَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ عَنْ أَبِي السَّمْحِ عَنْ عِيسَى بْنِ هِلالٍ الصَّدَفِيِّ عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عَمْرٍو قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهم عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ لَوْ أَنَّ رَصَاصَةً مِثْلَ هَذِهِ وَأَشَارَ إِلَى مِثْلِ جُمْجُمَةٍ أُرْسِلَتْ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ إِلَى الأرْضِ وَهِيَ مَسِيرَةُ خَمْسِ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ لَبَلَغَتِ الأرْضَ قَبْلَ اللَّيْلِ وَلَوْ أَنَّهَا أُرْسِلَتْ مِنْ رَأْسِ السِّلْسِلَةِ لَسَارَتْ أَرْبَعِينَ خَرِيفًا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ قَبْلَ أَنْ تَبْلُغَ أَصْلَهَا أَوْ قَعْرَهَا) (حَدَّثَنَاه الْحَسَنُ بْنُ عِيسَى أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ الْمُبَارَكِ أَخْبَرَنَا سَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ أَبُو شُجَاعٍ عَنْ أَبِي السَّمْحِ عَنْ عِيسَى بْنِ هِلالٍ عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عَمْرٍو عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللَّهم عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ مِثْلَهُ. أحمد مسند المكثرين من الصحابة 6561) .

- (لو أن رضاضة مثل هذه - وأشار إلى مثل الجمجمة - أرسلت من السماء إلى الأرض هي مسيرة خمسمائة سنة ، لبلغت الأرض قبل الليل ، ولو أنها أرسلت من رأس السلسلة لسارت أربعين خريفا الليل والنهار قبل أن تبلغ أصلها أو قعرها ) (الراوي: عبدالله بن عمرو بن العاص المحدث: الترمذي - المصدر: سنن الترمذي - الصفحة أو الرقم: 2588، خلاصة حكم المحدث: إسناده حسن صحيح )

الرِّوايات السابقة للحديث الحسن الصحيح المرفوع تؤكّدان قرب مجرَّتنا من البناء السّماوي الأوّل . كما تؤكِّدان أنَ طول السِّلسلة من سلاسل جهنّم كبير جدّا بالمقارنة مع البعد بين كرتنا الأرضيّة والبناء السّماوي الأوّل.

II- Universe contains far less matter as compared to other components:

QUR-AN contains an exact implicit determination to universe composition (http://www.mutah.edu.jo/eijaz/ALLAHsNames.htm):

II-a.  Dark Matter:

(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِمَا تُبْصِرُونَ * وَمَا لَا تُبْصِرُونَ) (الحاقة س 69، الآيتان 38-39)

(Furthermore I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not.) (S. 69 V 38-39)

(عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ الْكَبِيرُ الْمُتَعَالِ) (الرعد س 13 ، 9)

(He knoweth the Unseen and that which is open: He is the Great, the most High.) (S. 13, V. 9)

وَقَوْله" عَالِم الْغَيْب وَالشَّهَادَة " أَيْ يَعْلَم كُلّ شَيْء مِمَّا يُشَاهِدهُ الْعِبَاد وَمِمَّا يَغِيب عَنْهُمْ وَلَا يَخْفَى عَلَيْهِ مِنْهُ شَيْء" (بن كثير).

(عَالِمِ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ فَتَعَالَى عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ) (المؤمنون 23، 92)

(He knows what is hidden and what is open; too high is He for the partners they attribute to Him!) (S. 23, V. 92)

" عَالِم الْغَيْب وَالشَّهَادَة " أَيْ يَعْلَم مَا يَغِيب عَنْ الْمَخْلُوقَات وَمَا يُشَاهِدُونَهُ " فَتَعَالَى عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ " أَيْ تَقَدَّسَ وَتَنَزَّهَ وَتَعَالَى وَعَزَّ وَجَلَّ عَمَّا يَقُول الظَّالِمُونَ وَالْجَاحِدُونَ (بن كثير).

(هُوَ اللَّهُ الَّذِي لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا هُوَ عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ هُوَ الرَّحْمَنُ الرَّحِيمُ) (الحشر 59، 22)

(Allah is He, than Whom there is no other god; Who knows (all things) both secret and open (observable); He, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.) (S. 59, V. 22)

QUR_AN refers to both (things): الغيب (secret, hidden, unobservable) and الشَّهَادَة (observable, open).  Secret is being mentioned by 50 verses, and open (observable) is being mentioned by only 10 verses (the following table):

من المعجم المفهرس (الجداول : عمري : القرآن يحدّد النِّسب للطاقة المظلمة والمادتين المظلمة والعادية) ، يلاحظ أنّ المجموع الكلي (Nd) لعدد الآيات التي تتحدث عن الغيب هو .  هذه الآيات منها أربع (4) يذكرن الغيب النّسبي، ومنها (50) يذكرن الغيب الذي يستغرق الحياة الدّنيا .  وهذه المجموعة الثانية منها الآية الأخيرة في الجدول قد يكون احتسابها في العدّ محلّ خلاف وهي : (وَمَا هُمْ عَنْهَا بِغَائِبِينَ) (الانفطار 16).  " وَمَا هُمْ عَنْهَا (جَحِيم) بِغَائِبِينَ " بِمُخْرَجِينَ .  ورد ذكر الغيب  في الكلمات: الغيب ، الغيوب ، غائبة ، غيبه، غائبين.

من المعجم المفهرس (المرجع السابق)، يلاحظ أنّ كلمة الشهادة (بالمعنى الذي هو عالم الشهادة الذي هو ضدّ عالم الغيب) قد وردت في عشر ( (10آيات. العدد (NO) للآيات التي تتحدث عن عالم الشهادة هو

النسبة بين عدد الآيات التي تتحدث عن عالم الغيب (Nd) إلى عدد تلك التي تتحدث عن المشاهد NO هي:

تبين من البحث السابق (عمري : القرآن يحدّد النِّسب للطاقة المظلمة والمادتين المظلمة والعادية) أنّ نسبة عدد الآيات التي تتحدث عن الغيب وعالمه إلى تلك التي تتحدث عن عالم الشهادة () يساوي النسبة بين المادة الكونية المظلمة (25.4%  ) و المادة العاديّة من الذرات والنجوم والمجرات (4.75%  ) .

وإنّ تساوي هاتين النّسبتين لهو من إعجاز القرآن الكريم العلمي.

II-b.  Dark Energy:

QUR-AN contains an exact implicit determination to universe composition from dark energy (http://www.mutah.edu.jo/eijaz/ALLAHsNames.htm):

(وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ * وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) ] 48-47 الذّاريات[.

" We have built The Sama - Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out  Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 48).

This verse as well as many others (see section III-c: Inflation and expanding Universe) emphasise that the vast expansion of the universe is powered by ALLAH's force; which is the source for the so called dark energy.  This raises the question whether the ratio of this dark energy (72%) is equal to the ratio of Qur-anic verses metioning ALLAH by one of his names, attributes, or doings.  This turned to be the case (see the following table).

النسب في جميع السور (عمري : القرآن يحدّد النِّسب للطاقة المظلمة والمادتين المظلمة والعادية):

The ratio in All verses is 0.651.

جدول : النسب في السور، عدا التي موضوعها الرئيسي هو يوم القيامة؛ حيث تزول السماء؛ وتنقطع من الحفظ الرّباني (عمري : القرآن يحدّد النِّسب للطاقة المظلمة والمادتين المظلمة والعادية):

Table: The following table shows the Number of verses that mentions or refers to ALLAH.  The ratio in all verses except those Surahs (chapters) whose main topic is addressing the day hereafter (when Sama – Firmament - will collapse).  The ratio of these verses is (0.7054); which is very close to the ratio of the so called Dark energy (0.72) in our universe.

رقم السورة

إسم السورة

عدد آياتها

عدد آيات

الأسماء والصفات

عدد آيات الصفات أو

 الضمير العائد إلى الله

1

الفاتحة

7

4

3

2

البقرة

286

209

30

3

آل عمران

200

146

10

4

النساء

176

136

14

5

المائدة

120

94

6

6

الأنعام

165

102

41

7

الأعراف

206

85

66

8

الأنفال

75

58

7

9

التوبة

129

103

5

10

يونس

109

65

22

11

هود

123

61

28

12

يوسف

111

44

8

13

الرعد

43

34

4

14

إبراهيم

52

42

4

15

الحجر

99

13

37

16

النحل

128

90

25

17

الإسراء

111

43

46

18

الكهف

110

41

29

19

مريم

98

39

30

20

طه

135

31

46

21

الأنبياء

112

18

59

22

الحجّ

78

56

8

23

المؤمنون

118

36

33

24

النّور

64

50

4

25

الفُرقان

77

24

25

26

الشّعراء

227

49

37

27

النّمل

93

32

15

28

القصص

88

37

29

29

العنكبوت

69

35

21

30

الرّوم

60

26

22

31

لقمان

34

23

4

32

السّجدة

30

11

11

33

الأحزاب

73

53

9

34

سبأ

54

22

22

35

فاطر

45

 29

 7

36

يس

83

 17

34

37

الصّافّات

182

 25

45

38

ص~

88

13

31

39

الزُّمر

75

55

6

40

غافر

85

48

10

41

فصّلت

54

27

12

42

الشّورى

53

31

13

43

الزّخرف

89

21

33

45

الجاثية

37

20

 10

46

الأحقاف

35

 17

7

47

محمّد

38

 24

7

48

الفتح

29

25

 3

49

الحجرات

18

14

 0

51

الذّاريات

60

8

13

55

الرحمن

78

36

13

57

الحديد

29

23

3

58

المجَادلة

22

22

0

59

الحشر

24

19

0

60

الممتحنة

13

12

0

61

الصّفّ

14

11

3

62

الجُمُعة

11

10

1

63

المنافقون

11

10

1

64

التّغابن

18

16

1

65

الطّلاق

12

11

0

66

التّحريم

12

10

1

67

الملك

30

10

9

68

القلم

52

8

9

71

نوح

28

11

10

72

الجنّ

28

17

4

80

عبس

42

0

13

87

الأعلى

19

3

6

88

الغاشية

26

1

6

90

البلد

20

0

6

91

الشّمس

15

2

7

92

الليل

14

1

10

93

الضّحى

11

3

3

94

الشَرح

8

1

4

95

التّين

8

1

6

97

القدر

5

1

1

98

البيّنة

8

3

3

103

العصر

3

0

2

105

الفيل

5

1

3

106

قريش

4

1

2

107

الماعون

7

0

3

108

الكوثر

3

1

1

109

الكافرون

6

0

3

110

النّصر

3

3

0

112

الإخلاص

4

2

2

113

الفلق

5

1

1

114

النّاس

6

3

0

 

المجموع

 

5235

2540

1128

 

(1128+2540)/ 5235 = 0.701

النسب مع البسملة:

(1128+2540+84)/ (5235 +84) = 0.7054

III- Redshift and hierarchical structure only contribute to just darken an already dark sky.

III-a: An already dark sky

وتؤكّد الآيات والأحاديث أنَّ السّموات والأرض كانتا رتقاً عند بداية الخلق (أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. وأمّا الآن فهنَّ بسط وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

"Do not the Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Samaa: upper part of universe) and the  Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe) were Ratq (joined, coupled), before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).

The Arabic word (Ratq), implies that at early stages of Universe, matter used to have smeared and continuous mass distribution with high density, and both matter and radiation were coupled together.  Later on, God clove them asunder (Fatq): Implying that matter had started clumping and holding together to help forming seven distinct firmaments (Samawat) and seven interior levels of  Ardh (very likely to be seven distinct shells of dark matter).  Also, later the universe became transparent, and matter is no more coupled to radiation (Fatq).  Consequently Samaa (Upper part of Universe) and  Ardh (Interior part of Universe) are decoupled; each into seven distinct and probably concentric spherical shells.  The seven Ardhean (plural of  Ardh: Ground) mentioned by authentic hadiths (Prophet's sayings) are seven distinct levels.  It is possible that galaxies and clusters of galaxies are distributed over Ardhean.  As such, Ardhean represent a major part of the cosmic dark matter that supports forming gravitationally bounded galaxies and clusters ([v]).

Hot:

(ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ) [فصّلت آية 11-12 ].

Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Sama (upper part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to  Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye, willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'. So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days (Periods) " (Surah 41, Verses 11-12).

 (قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ) : على الفور.  (السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ) تكوّنت على الفور.

At early stages, the Universe was hot and opaque as indicated by the verse: "and it had been smoke".

Primordial Dense Initial Condition:

(هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ لَكُمْ مَا فِي الْأَرْضِ جَمِيعًا ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ فَسَوَّاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ وَهُوَ بِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ عَلِيمٌ) (البقرة 29).

One of the indications of  Ardh is seven Ardhean (plural of  Ardh: The interior; or lower; part of the Universe) (Omari, 2004; Omari, 2004): "He it is Who created for you all that is in coupled Ardhean.  Then He Istawâ towards the Samaa (highness) and give order and perfection to the seven Samawat (plural of Samaa: canopy) and He is the All-Knower of everything" (Al-Baqarah 2:29).

(أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. وأمّا الآن فهنَّ بسط وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

"Do not the Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Samaa: upper part of universe) and the  Ardh (cold dark matter) were Ratq (joined, coupled), before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).

III-b: Redshift also contributes to darken an already dark sky

This is indicated by the following verses:

(أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا * رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا فَسَوَّاهَا * وَأَغْطَشَ لَيْلَهَا وَأَخْرَجَ ضُحَاهَا) [النّازعات الآيات 27-29] .

([27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection. [29] Its night doth He endow with darkness, and its splendour doth He bring out (with sun light). (S. 79, V. 27-29).

(الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ الَّذِي خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَجَعَلَ الظُّلُمَاتِ وَالنُّورَ ثُمَّ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا بِرَبِّهِمْ يَعْدِلُونَ) (الأنعام 1)

(Praise be to Allah, Who created the samawat (heavens, firmaments, skies) and the  Ardh (Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies ), and made the Darkness and the Light. Yet those who reject Faith hold (others) as equal with their Guardian-Lord.) (S. 6, V. 1).

(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِالْخُنَّسِ * الْجَوَارِي الْكُنَّسِ * وَاللَّيْلِ إِذَا عَسْعَسَ) (التكوير س 81 ، آية 15-17)

(So verily I call to witness those (Stars and galaxies) that hide and recede.  Constantly moving, and accreating.  And the Night as it gets Darker) (S. 81; V. 15-17)

III-c: Inflation and expanding Universe:

Inflation is Referred to by the followingVerses:

(ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ) [فصّلت آية 11-12 ].

Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Sama (upper part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to  Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye, willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'. So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days (Periods) " (Surah 41, Verses 11-12).

(وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ * وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) ] 48-47 الذّاريات[.

" We have built The Sama - Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 48).

(أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا * رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا فَسَوَّاهَا * وأغطش ليلها وأخرج ضحاها) [النّازعات 27-29].

 (What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it:  On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.           وأغطش ليلها وأخرج ضحاها          ) (Surah 79, Verses 27-28).

 (وَالسَّمَاءَ رَفَعَهَا وَوَضَعَ الْمِيزَانَ) (الرحمن 7)

(And the Firmament has He raised high, and He has set up the Balance (of Justice),) (S. 55, V. 7)

- (وَإِلَى السَّمَاءِ كَيْفَ رُفِعَتْ) سورة الغاشية آية رقم 18 .

(And at the Sama – Firmaments ; sky; galaxies -, how it is raised high? ) (S. 88, V. 18).

وإنّ كون النظام معزول ومغلق هو بعض مما تتضمنه الآية الكريمة: (وَالسَّمَاءِ ذَاتِ الرَّجْعِ) (الطارق آية 11) ، على اعتبار أنّ السّماء هنا هي البناء.

This adiabatic (closed) system is likely to be among things indicated by the following verse:

(By the Firmament which returns ), (Surah 86, verse 11)

References

Croswell, Ken 2001, “Wondering in the Dark”, Sky & Telescope magazine, December 2001, pages 44-50

Freedman, Wendy L. and Turner, Michael S. 2003, “Cosmology in the New Millennium”, Sky & Telescope magazine, October 2003, pages 31-41 

Harrison, Edward 2000, “Cosmology, The Science of the Universe”, 2nd Ed, Cambridge University Press, Chapter 24: Darkness at night, pages 491-514 

Vicino, Gonzalo 2003, “Relatividad y Cosmología”, A. Monteverde y Cía. S.A., Chapter 12: Estado actual de la cosmología: Afirmaciones, disidencias y opiniones, pages 161-184 

Wesson, Paul S. 1989, “The real reason the night sky is dark: Correcting a myth in astronomy teaching”, Journal of the British Astronomical Association, vol. 99, no. 1, p. 10-13 

The image included on page 2 (“The magnificent Milky Way at Sagitarius”) was taken by the author on September 14th, 2004 (piggyback, Kodak Ultra ISO 400, 135-mm, f/2.8, 4 min exp.)

71 To English

71 To Arabic-English

71To Arabic


[1] Sometimes referred to as the “gravity paradox”, it directly resulted from considering that the attraction between different parts of a finite universe would cause, in Newton’ own words, “to fall down into the middle of the whole space, and there compose one great spherical mass”.

[2] The total light received from the larger number of stars embraced by a further distant shell would result exactly compensated by the increased dilution due to the longer distance.





[i] ) See the following references:-

- Omari, 2002; (Omari, 2004; Omari, 2004).

- al-Sabouni, Mohammed Ali (1981). Mukhtaser Tafseer  ibn Katheer (A Summary of Ibn Katheer’s Interpretation) Beirut, Dar al-Quran al-Kareem, 3 Parts; Vol. 2, 506.

- al-Zamakhshari, 538 Hijri, vol. 2: 570.

- Weinberg, Steven. The First Three Minutes, 6th printing 1984, USA, pp 48-49.

-  al-Siyouti, Abdulhruhaman (911 Hijri) ad-Dur al-Menthour fi al-Tafseer al-Ma’thour (The Spreading Pearl in the Memorable Interpretation) (2nd. Ed. 1414 Hijri-1993), Part 1: 106-107.

[ii] ) See the following references:-

- Ibn Attiyeh al-Andalusi, Abi Mohammed (546 Hijri) al-Muharur al-Wajeez fi Tafseer al-Kettab al-Aziz (1413 Hijri-1993) (The Editing Summary in the Interpretation of the Glorious Quran) Vol., 5:181.

- Abi Al-Abbas, Shehab ed-Din (1994) al-Dar al-Masoun fi Oloum al-Kettab al-Kaknoun. Beirut, Dar al-Kutub al-Elmiyyah. Six Parts; Part 6: 192.

- Abu Hayan, (654-754 Hijri) An-Nahr al-Madd, vol. 5: Part 5: 244.

- Ibn Attiyeh al-Andalusi, (546 Hijri), (1413 Hijri-1993), vol. 5:181.

- Shehab ed-Din (1994), Part 6: 192.

- Abu Hayan, (654-754 Hijri) al-Bahr al-Muheet,  Part 9: 560

[iii] ) See the following references:-

- as-Sammurgandi, Abi al-Layeth Nasser bin Mohammed (1993) Bahr al-Oulum (The Sea of Knowledge)  Beirut, 3 Parts, Part 3: 280.

-  al-Jouzi, Abi al-Faruj Jamal ed-Din (1987) Zad al-Maseer fi Elm at-Tafseer (The Provision of Walk in the Science of Interpretation) Beirut, Dar al-Fikr, 8 Parts, Part 7: 212.

- al-Kasimi, Mohammed Jamal (1332 Hijri- 1914) Mahasen at-Ta’weel (The Advantages of Paraphrase), Dar al-Fiker (1978), vol. 9, Part 2: 202-03.

- al-Khateeb, 1970, vol. 4: 529-39.

- al-Zamakhshari, 538 Hijri, vol. 4: 20.

-  al-Razi, 1208, vol. 4: 227

[iv] ) See the following references:-

- al-Kasimi, Mohammed Jamal (1332 Hijri- 1914) Mahasen at-Ta’weel (The Advantages of Paraphrase), Dar al-Fiker (1978), vol. 9, Part 2: 202-03.

- al-Maourdi, Tasneef Abi al-Hasan al-Basri (364-450 Hijri) Revised and commented on by as-Siyyed bin Abdulraheem.  Al-Nukat wal Oyoun: Tafseer al-Maourdi (Secrets - details - and the Eyes: al-Maourdi’s Interpretation). Beirut, Dar al-Kutub al-Elmiyeh. 6 volumes. Vol.5: 373-74.

- al-Nasseri, 1985, Part 6: 93.

[v] ) See the following references:-

- Omari, 2002; (Omari, 2004; Omari, 2004).

- al-Sabouni, Mohammed Ali (1981). Mukhtaser Tafseer  ibn Katheer (A Summary of Ibn Katheer’s Interpretation) Beirut, Dar al-Quran al-Kareem, 3 Parts; Vol. 2, 506.

- al-Zamakhshari, 538 Hijri, vol. 2: 570.

- Weinberg, Steven. The First Three Minutes, 6th printing 1984, USA, pp 48-49.

-  al-Siyouti, Abdulhruhaman (911 Hijri) ad-Dur al-Menthour fi al-Tafseer al-Ma’thour (The Spreading Pearl in the Memorable Interpretation) (2nd. Ed. 1414 Hijri-1993), Part 1: 106-107.