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Dark sky Olbers' Paradox
by
Eduardo
Manuel Alvarez ([1])
The Link To
QUR-AN
by
Hussain Omari
Phys. Dept./ Mutah Univ./ Jordan
Olbers’
paradox
The question about the night’s darkness
involves not only a difficult topic by itself, but a truly essential one, as it
is intimately connected with the structure and evolution of the universe as a
whole. Assuming an infinite old universe with stars scattered more or less
randomly throughout infinite space -the usual model since the end of medieval
times- the night sky should not be dark as it obviously has ever been.
This
evident contradiction between theory and reality became generically known as
“Olbers’ paradox”, after the German amateur astronomer who wrote about it in 1823.
Being his own explanation neither the first, nor the last, and even wrong,
Heinrich Olbers’ objective merits look quite disproportionate for such a
tribute, thus seeming like the scientific community actually got two paradoxes
for the price of one.
Under clear skies, the starry night appears wearing
its very best party dress. Having the chance to ever observe it, urban citizens
usually get immediately captured by its majestic beauty and begin wondering
about its endless mysteries. Any kind of deep questions could consequently
arise
Newton
thought that the universe had to be a static, infinitely old, unlimited expanse
of stars homogeneously distributed. This model effectively resolved the
otherwise problematic appearance of a privilege centre of gravity -in a non
homogenous universe large gravitational forces would not be compensated at all[1]- but failed to solve the riddle of the
sky darkness (which consequently became posed).
We now know that space and time are no longer independent entities as
previously thought, but integrate a single reality called spacetime. According
to Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, spacetime has the property to grip
mass, telling it how to move, while at the same time mass grips spacetime,
telling it how to curve. The geometry and history of our universe are currently
described firmly buttressed on those foundations.
By joining together theoretical solutions derived from General
Relativity, with practical compelling evidence obtained from our best
observational instruments, most cosmologists agree that our universe (that is,
all the space, matter, time, and energy) was “created” in a singular episode
called the Big Bang, some 13.7 billion years ago, and it has been expanding
ever since.
This is emphasized by
QUR-AN:
وتؤكّد الآيات والأحاديث أنَّ السّموات
والأرض كانتا رتقاً عند بداية الخلق (أَوَلَمْ يَرَ
الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا
وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء
30]. وأمّا الآن
فهنَّ بسط وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).
"Do not the
Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Samaa: upper part of universe) and the Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe) were Ratq (joined,
coupled), before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).
The Arabic word (Ratq),
implies that at early stages of Universe, matter used to have smeared and
continuous mass distribution with high density, and both matter and radiation
were coupled together. Later on, God
clove them asunder (Fatq): Implying that matter had started clumping and
holding together to help
forming seven distinct firmaments (Samawat) and seven interior levels of Ardh (very
likely to be seven distinct shells of dark matter). Also, later the universe became transparent,
and matter is no more coupled to radiation (Fatq). Consequently Samaa (Upper part of
Universe) and Ardh
(Interior part of Universe) are decoupled; each into seven distinct and
probably concentric spherical shells. The seven Ardhean (plural of Ardh: Ground) mentioned by authentic hadiths (Prophet's
sayings) are seven distinct levels. It
is possible that galaxies and clusters of galaxies are distributed over Ardhean. As such, Ardhean represent a major
part of the cosmic dark matter that supports forming gravitationally bounded
galaxies and clusters ([i]).
Expanding:
- (وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ * وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) ] 48-47
الذّاريات[.
" We have built The Samaa - Firmament - with might, We
indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand
it * And We have spread out Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter
holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 48).
And We indeed
Have vast power and force; to build the Samaa (sky, firmaments, space) via expansion and to keep on its expansion.
(وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ
الْمَاهِدُونَ): وَالأرْضَ: تعني الأرضين
السّبع (seven concentric spherical
shells of cold dark matter)؛ الحاضن الجاذبي للمجرّات (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).
"And We
indeed Have vast power; to expand it".
This interprets as: ALLAH constructs
Samaa via expansion ([ii]). ALLAH create and elevate Samaa with vast
force and power, and We (ALLAH) are able to expand it as We desire ([iii]). We are able to expand, as We expand its
construction ([iv]).
(أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا * رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا
فَسَوَّاهَا * وأغطش ليلها وأخرج
ضحاها) [النّازعات 27-29]
إنّ التّفسير الفلكي لظلمة اللّيل
(وأغطش ليلها) هو التّوسّع الّذي ينتج عنه تبرُّد الكون ومجانبته لحالة الاتزان
الحراري الثيرموديناميكي (60).
[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa
(Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised
its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection. [29] Its night doth He endow with darkness,
and its splendour doth He bring out (with sun light). (An-Nazi'at
chapter 79).
Regarding this widely accepted model, Olbers’ paradox has now become
resolved. However, the long and winding road actually travelled towards its
definite solution is still worthily to be known, not only for being very
instructive by itself, but at least as a deserved tribute to all other
unreferenced road-makers.
The darkness of the sky
is pointed out by QUR-AN
QUR-AN mentions the night (or night
time) about 92 times. Also in the holy
QUR-AN, ALLAH swears by the night five times!. This is more than enough to direct our
attention to think about this important phenomena. ALLAH swears by the night in the following five
verses:
|
السورة |
رقم
السورة Surah (chapter) No. |
رقم الآية Ayah (Verse) No. |
الآية The Verse |
||||||||
|
المدثر |
74 |
33 |
|
||||||||
|
التكوير |
81 |
17 |
And by the Night as it dissipates (or darkens); قَالَ الْفَرَّاء :
أَجْمَعَ الْمُفَسِّرُونَ عَلَى أَنَّ مَعْنَى عَسْعَسَ أَدْبَرَ
; حَكَاهُ الْجَوْهَرِيّ . وَقَالَ بَعْض أَصْحَابنَا : إِنَّهُ دَنَا
مِنْ أَوَّله وَأَظْلَمَ وَكَذَلِكَ السَّحَاب إِذَا دَنَا مِنْ
الْأَرْض . الْمَهْدَوِيّ : " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا عَسْعَسَ " أَدْبَرَ
بِظَلَامِهِ ; عَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس وَمُجَاهِد وَغَيْرهمَا . وَرُوِيَ
عَنْهُمَا أَيْضًا وَعَنْ الْحَسَن وَغَيْره : أَقْبَلَ بِظَلَامِهِ
. زَيْد بْن أَسْلَمَ : " عَسْعَسَ " ذَهَبَ . الْفَرَّاء : الْعَرَب
تَقُول عَسْعَسَ وَسَعْسَعَ إِذَا لَمْ يَبْقَ مِنْهُ إِلَّا الْيَسِير .
الْخَلِيل وَغَيْره : عَسْعَسَ اللَّيْل إِذَا أَقْبَلَ أَوْ أَدْبَرَ
. الْمُبَرِّد : هُوَ مِنْ الْأَضْدَاد , وَالْمَعْنَيَانِ يَرْجِعَانِ
إِلَى شَيْء وَاحِد , وَهُوَ اِبْتِدَاء الظَّلَام فِي أَوَّلِهِ , وَإِدْبَاره
فِي آخِرِهِ ; وَقَالَ عَلْقَمَة بْن قُرْط : حَتَّى إِذَا الصُّبْح
لَهَا تَنَفَّسَا و اِنْجَابَ عَنْهَا لَيْلُهَا وَعَسْعَسَا وَقَالَ رُؤْبَة :
يَا هِنْد مَا أَسْرَعَ مَا تَسَعْسَعَا مِنْ بَعْد مَا كَانَ فَتَى سَرَعْرَعَا
وَهَذِهِ حُجَّة الْفَرَّاء . وَقَالَ امْرُؤُ الْقَيْس : عَسْعَسَ حَتَّى لَوْ
يَشَاء آدَّنَا كَانَ لَنَا مِنْ نَاره مَقْبِسُ فَهَذَا يَدُلّ عَلَى الدُّنُوّ
. وَقَالَ الْحَسَن وَمُجَاهِد : عَسْعَسَ : أَظْلَمَ , قَالَ الشَّاعِر
: حَتَّى إِذَا مَا لَيْلهنَّ عَسْعَسَا رَكِبْنَ مِنْ حَدّ الظَّلَام حِنْدِسًا
الْمَاوَرْدِيّ : وَأَصْل الْعُسّ الِامْتِلَاء ; وَمِنْهُ قِيلَ
لِلْقَدَحِ الْكَبِير عُسّ لِامْتِلَائِهِ بِمَا فِيهِ , فَأُطْلِقَ عَلَى
إِقْبَال اللَّيْل لِابْتِدَاءِ اِمْتِلَائِهِ ; وَأُطْلِقَ عَلَى إِدْبَاره
لِانْتِهَاءِ اِمْتِلَائِهِ عَلَى ظَلَامِهِ ; لِاسْتِكْمَالِ اِمْتِلَائِهِ
بِهِ . .... وَيُقَال لِلذِّئْبِ الْعَسْعَس وَالْعَسْعَاس وَالْعَسَّاس
; لِأَنَّهُ يَعُسّ بِاللَّيْلِ وَيَطْلُب . وَيُقَال لِلْقَنَافِذِ الْعَسَاعِس
لِكَثْرَةِ تَرَدُّدهَا بِاللَّيْلِ . قَالَ أَبُو عَمْرو : وَالتَّعَسْعُس
الشَّمّ , وَأَنْشَدَ : كَمَنْخِرِ الذَّنْب إِذَا تَعَسْعَسَا وَالتَّعَسْعُس
أَيْضًا : طَلَب الصَّيْد [ بِاللَّيْلِ ] . (القرطبي) |
||||||||
|
الانشقاق |
84 |
17 |
And by the Night and what it covers (or holds) أَيْ جَمَعَ وَضَمَّ
وَلَفَّ
. ... فَاللَّيْل يَجْمَع وَيَضُمّ مَا كَانَ مُنْتَشِرًا بِالنَّهَارِ فِي
تَصَرُّفِهِ . هَذَا مَعْنَى قَوْل اِبْن عَبَّاس وَمُجَاهِد وَمُقَاتِل
وَغَيْرهمْ ; ... فَإِذَا جَلَّلَ اللَّيْل الْجِبَال وَالْأَشْجَار وَالْبِحَار
وَالْأَرْض فَاجْتَمَعَتْ لَهُ , فَقَدْ وَسَقَهَا . وَالْوَسْق : ضَمُّك
الشَّيْء بَعْضه إِلَى بَعْض , تَقُول : وَسَقْته أَسِقهُ وَسْقًا . وَمِنْهُ
قِيلَ لِلطَّعَامِ الْكَثِير الْمُجْتَمِع : وَسْق , وَهُوَ سِتُّونَ صَاعًا .
وَطَعَام مُوسَق : أَيْ مَجْمُوع , وَإِبِل مُسْتَوْسِقَة أَيْ مُجْتَمِعَة . ..
وَقَالَ عِكْرِمَة : " وَمَا وَسَقَ " أَيْ وَمَا سَاقَ مِنْ شَيْء
إِلَى حَيْثُ يَأْوِي , فَالْوَسْق بِمَعْنَى الطَّرْد , وَمِنْهُ قِيلَ
لِلطَّرِيدَةِ مِنْ الْإِبِل وَالْغَنَم وَالْحُمْر : وَسِيقَة . ... وَعَنْ
اِبْن عَبَّاس : " وَمَا وَسَقَ " أَيْ وَمَا جَنَّ وَسَتَرَ .
وَعَنْهُ أَيْضًا : وَمَا حَمَلَ , وَكُلّ شَيْء حَمَلْته فَقَدْ وَسَقْته ,
وَالْعَرَب تَقُول : لَا أَفْعَلهُ مَا وَسَقَتْ عَيْنَيَّ الْمَاء , أَيْ
حَمَلَتْهُ . وَوَسَقَتْ النَّاقَة تَسِق وَسْقًا : أَيْ حَمَلَتْ وَأَغْلَقَتْ
رَحِمهَا عَلَى الْمَاء , فَهِيَ نَاقَة وَاسِق , وَنُوق وِسَاق مِثْل نَائِم
وَنِيَام , وَصَاحِب وَصِحَاب , قَالَ بِشْر بْن أَبِي خَازِم : أَلَظَّ بِهِنَّ
يَحْدُوهُنَّ حَتَّى تَبَيَّنَتْ الْحِيَال مِنْ الْوِسَاق وَمَوَاسِيق أَيْضًا
. وَأَوْسَقْت الْبَعِير : حَمَّلْته حِمْله , وَأَوْسَقَتْ النَّخْلَة : كَثُرَ
حَمْلهَا . وَقَالَ يَمَان وَالضَّحَّاك وَمُقَاتِل بْن سُلَيْمَان : حَمَلَ
مِنْ الظُّلْمَة . قَالَ مُقَاتِل : أَوْ حَمَلَ مِنْ الْكَوَاكِب .
الْقُشَيْرِيّ : وَمَعْنَى حَمَلَ : ضَمَّ وَجَمَعَ , وَاللَّيْل يُجَلِّل
بِظُلْمَتِهِ كُلّ شَيْء فَإِذَا جَلَّلَهَا فَقَدْ وَسَقَهَا . وَيَكُون هَذَا
الْقَسَم قَسَمًا بِجَمِيعِ الْمَخْلُوقَات , لِاشْتِمَالِ اللَّيْل عَلَيْهَا ,
كَقَوْلِهِ تَعَالَى : " فَلَا أُقْسِم بِمَا تُبْصِرُونَ وَمَا لَا
تُبْصِرُونَ " [ الْحَاقَّة : 38 - 39 ] . وَقَالَ اِبْن جُبَيْر :
" وَمَا وَسَقَ " أَيْ وَمَا عُمِلَ فِيهِ , يَعْنِي التَّهَجُّد
وَالِاسْتِغْفَار بِالْأَسْحَارِ , قَالَ الشَّاعِر : وَيَوْمًا تَرَانَا
صَالِحِينَ وَتَارَة تَقُوم بِنَا كَالْوَاسِقِ الْمُتَلَبِّب أَيْ كَالْعَامِلِ
(القرطبي). |
||||||||
|
الفجر |
89 |
4 |
أَقْسَمَ بِاللَّيْلِ
عَلَى الْعُمُوم . وَمَعْنَى " يَسْرِي " أَيْ يُسْرَى فِيهِ
كَمَا يُقَال : لَيْل نَائِم , وَنَهَار صَائِم . قَالَ : لَقَدْ لُمْتِنَا يَا
أُمَّ غَيْلَانَ فِي السُّرَى وَنِمْت وَمَا لَيْل الْمَطِيِّ بِنَائِمِ
وَمِنْهُ قَوْله تَعَالَى : " بَلْ مَكْر اللَّيْل وَالنَّهَار " [
سَبَأ : 33 ] . وَهَذَا قَوْل أَكْثَر أَهْل الْمَعَانِي , وَهُوَ قَوْل
الْقُتَبِيّ وَالْأَخْفَش . وَقَالَ أَكْثَر الْمُفَسِّرِينَ : مَعْنَى "
يَسْرِي " : سَارَ فَذَهَبَ . وَقَالَ قَتَادَة وَأَبُو الْعَالِيَة
: جَاءَ وَأَقْبَلَ . وَرُوِيَ عَنْ إِبْرَاهِيم : " وَاللَّيْل
إِذَا يَسْرِ " قَالَ : إِذَا اِسْتَوَى . وَقَالَ عِكْرِمَة
وَالْكَلْبِيّ وَمُجَاهِد وَمُحَمَّد بْن كَعْب فِي قَوْله : " وَاللَّيْل
" : هِيَ لَيْلَة الْمُزْدَلِفَة خَاصَّة لِاخْتِصَاصِهَا بِاجْتِمَاعِ
النَّاس فِيهَا لِطَاعَةِ اللَّه . وَقِيلَ : لَيْلَة الْقَدْر لِسَرَايَةِ
الرَّحْمَة فِيهَا , وَاخْتِصَاصهَا بِزِيَادَةِ الثَّوَاب فِيهَا . وَقِيلَ
: إِنَّهُ أَرَادَ عُمُوم اللَّيْل كُلّه . قُلْت : وَهُوَ الْأَظْهَر , كَمَا تَقَدَّمَ
. وَاَللَّه أَعْلَم . وَقَرَأَ اِبْن كَثِير وَابْن مُحَيْصِن وَيَعْقُوب
" يَسْرِي " بِإِثْبَاتِ الْيَاء فِي الْحَالَيْنِ , عَلَى الْأَصْل ;
لِأَنَّهَا لَيْسَتْ بِمَجْزُومَةٍ , فَثَبَتَتْ فِيهَا الْيَاء . وَقَرَأَ
نَافِع وَأَبُو عَمْرو بِإِثْبَاتِهَا فِي الْوَصْل , وَبِحَذْفِهَا فِي
الْوَقْف , وَرُوِيَ عَنْ الْكِسَائِيّ . قَالَ أَبُو عُبَيْد : كَانَ
الْكِسَائِيّ يَقُول مَرَّة بِإِثْبَاتِ الْيَاء فِي الْوَصْل , وَبِحَذْفِهَا
فِي الْوَقْف , اِتِّبَاعًا لِلْمُصْحَفِ . ثُمَّ رَجَعَ إِلَى حَذْف الْيَاء
فِي الْحَالَيْنِ جَمِيعًا ; لِأَنَّهُ رَأْس آيَة , وَهِيَ قِرَاءَة أَهْل
الشَّام وَالْكُوفَة , وَاخْتِيَار أَبِي عُبَيْد , اِتِّبَاعًا لِلْخَطِّ ;
لِأَنَّهَا وَقَعَتْ فِي الْمُصْحَف بِغَيْرِ يَاء . قَالَ الْخَلِيل : تَسْقُط
الْيَاء مِنْهَا اِتِّفَاقًا لِرُءُوسِ الْآي . قَالَ الْفَرَّاء : قَدْ تَحْذِف
الْعَرَب الْيَاء , وَتَكْتَفِي بِكَسْرِ مَا قَبْلهَا . وَأَنْشَدَ بَعْضهمْ :
كَفَّاك كَفٌّ مَا تُلِيقُ دِرْهَمًا جُودًا وَأُخْرَى تُعْطِ بِالسَّيْفِ
الدَّمَا يُقَال : فُلَان مَا يُلِيق دِرْهَمًا مِنْ جُودِهِ أَيْ مَا
يُمْسِكُهُ , وَلَا يَلْصَق بِهِ . وَقَالَ الْمُؤَرِّج : سَأَلْت الْأَخْفَش
عَنْ الْعِلَّة فِي إِسْقَاط الْيَاء مِنْ " يَسْرِ " فَقَالَ : لَا
أُجِيبك حَتَّى تَبِيت عَلَى بَاب دَارِي سَنَة , فَبِتّ عَلَى بَاب دَاره سَنَة
فَقَالَ : اللَّيْل لَا يَسْرِي وَإِنَّمَا يُسْرَى فِيهِ فَهُوَ مَصْرُوف ,
وَكُلّ مَا صَرَفْته عَنْ جِهَته بَخَسْته مِنْ إِعْرَابه أَلَا تَرَى إِلَى
قَوْله تَعَالَى : " وَمَا كَانَتْ أُمُّك بَغِيًّا " [ مَرْيَم : 28
] , لَمْ يَقُلْ بَغِيَّة ; لِأَنَّهُ صَرَفَهَا عَنْ بَاغِيَة .
الزَّمَخْشَرِيّ : وَيَاء " يَسْرِي " تُحْذَف فِي الدَّرَج ,
اِكْتِفَاء عَنْهَا بِالْكَسْرَةِ , وَأَمَّا فِي الْوَقْف فَتُحْذَف مَعَ
الْكَسْرَة . وَهَذِهِ الْأَسْمَاء كُلّهَا مَجْرُورَة بِالْقَسَمِ ,
وَالْجَوَاب مَحْذُوف , وَهُوَ لَيُعَذَّبَنَّ يَدُلّ عَلَيْهِ قَوْله تَعَالَى
: " أَلَمْ تَرَ كَيْف فَعَلَ رَبّك " إِلَى قَوْله تَعَالَى "
فَصَبَّ عَلَيْهِمْ رَبّك سَوْط عَذَاب " [ الْفَجْر : 6 - 13 ] . وَقَالَ
اِبْن الْأَنْبَارِيّ هُوَ " إِنَّ رَبّك لَبِالْمِرْصَادِ " [
الْفَجْر : 14 ] (القرطبي). And by the Night when it passeth away;
|
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|
الشمس |
91 |
4 |
|
||||||||
|
الليل |
92 |
1 |
أَيْ يُغَطِّي . وَلَمْ يَذْكُر مَعَهُ
مَفْعُولًا لِلْعِلْمِ بِهِ . وَقِيلَ : يَغْشَى النَّهَار . وَقِيلَ : الْأَرْض
. وَقِيلَ : الْخَلَائِق . وَقِيلَ : يَغْشَى كُلّ شَيْء بِظُلْمَتِهِ
(القرطبي). By the Night as it conceals (everything: the daytime, ground,
earth, creatures); |
||||||||
|
الضحى |
93 |
2 |
" سَجَا " مَعْنَاهُ : سَكَنَ قَالَهُ قَتَادَة
وَمُجَاهِد وَابْن زَيْد وَعِكْرِمَة . ... وَقَالَ الضَّحَّاك : " سَجَا
" غَطَّى كُلّ شَيْء . قَالَ الْأَصْمَعِيّ : سَجْو اللَّيْل :
تَغْطِيَته النَّهَار مِثْلَمَا يُسَجَّى الرَّجُل بِالثَّوْبِ . وَقَالَ
الْحَسَن : غَشِيَ بِظَلَامِهِ وَقَالَهُ اِبْن عَبَّاس . وَعَنْهُ : إِذَا
ذَهَبَ . وَعَنْهُ أَيْضًا : إِذَا أَظْلَمَ . وَقَالَ سَعِيد بْن جُبَيْر :
أَقْبَلَ وَرُوِيَ عَنْ قَتَادَة أَيْضًا . وَرَوَى اِبْن أَبِي نَجِيح عَنْ
مُجَاهِد : " سَجَا " اِسْتَوَى . وَالْقَوْل الْأَوَّل أَشْهَر فِي
اللُّغَة : " سَجَا " سَكَنَ أَيْ سَكَنَ النَّاس فِيهِ . كَمَا
يُقَال : نَهَار صَائِم , وَلَيْل قَائِم . وَقِيلَ : سُكُونه
اِسْتِقْرَار ظَلَامِهِ وَاسْتِوَاؤُهُ . وَيُقَال : "
وَالضُّحَى . وَاللَّيْل إِذَا سَجَا " : يَعْنِي عِبَاده الَّذِينَ
يَعْبُدُونَهُ فِي وَقْت الضُّحَى , وَعِبَاده الَّذِينَ يَعْبُدُونَهُ
بِاللَّيْلِ إِذَا أَظْلَمَ . وَيُقَال : " الضُّحَى " : يَعْنِي نُور
الْجَنَّة إِذَا تُنَوَّر . " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا سَجَا " : يَعْنِي
ظُلْمَة اللَّيْل إِذَا أَظْلَمَ . وَيُقَال : " وَالضُّحَى "
: يَعْنِي النُّور الَّذِي فِي قُلُوب الْعَارِفِينَ كَهَيْئَةِ النَّهَار .
" وَاللَّيْل إِذَا سَجَا " : يَعْنِي السَّوَاد الَّذِي فِي قُلُوب
الْكَافِرِينَ كَهَيْئَةِ اللَّيْل فَأَقْسَمَ اللَّه عَزَّ وَجَلَّ بِهَذِهِ
الْأَشْيَاء (القرطبي). And by the Night when it is still (darkens, conceals everything),
|
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Analysis
of the proposed solutions
Since first serious attempts to explain the cause of the night darkness,
elaborated more than 400 years ago, many alternative solutions have been
candidated to justify why the sky is not seen as fully covered by stars. Most
of them have proved to be wrong, as they were based on incorrect models about
the universe’s structure and/or its evolution.
A succinct presentation of each one of the more plausible proposed
solutions is next discussed, including the author(s) and date(s), an
explanation about its main argument and a conclusion evaluating its definite
pertinence. The order of the following presentation actually corresponds to the
chronological order of appearance (Harrison 2000).
“Starlight
is too feeble”: Originally proposed by Englishman
Thomas Digges in 1576, it was based in the simple assumption that distant
stars, although infinite in number, could be just too faint to be observed.
This argument is clearly false, as the combined light of “invisible” stars
should itself be visible anyway, which is not the case.
“Dark
cosmic wall”: Originally proposed by the great German
Johannes Kepler in 1610, it was based in the concept that the universe is not
infinite at all, abruptly ending towards a dark boundary that completely
surrounds the starry space. Obviously this is not true.
“Stoic
finite cosmos”: Originally proposed by the Prussian
Otto von Guericke in 1672, by the Irish Agnes Mary Clerke in 1890, and even by
the famous American astronomer Harlow Shapley as late as 1917, it was based on
the idea that the whole Universe was just a “one-island universe” floating in
an infinite void of empty space, that is, the star-populated region supposedly
only extents up to a finite size, although the beyond remaining space spans
endless. This solution is basically the same as the previous one, just that the
“dark cosmic wall” has been replaced by a much more “scientifically-correct”
infinite void. Anyway, this model of universe is wrong.
“Geometric
effect”: Originally proposed by English scientist Edmund
Halley in 1720, it also was the first solution derived after a mathematical
analysis of the question. By considering imaginary concentric spheres of
increasing radius, forming a series of shells of constant thickness, Halley
found that the respective starlight contribution of each shell does not depend
on the given radius of the shell[2]. As this reasoning should have concluded
that infinite shells would give a bright sky, the proposed solution was to
assume that the combined light from distant shells actually resulted obstructed
by nearby stars. Wrong argument, as despite the claimed obstruction every line
of sight would still end at a star’s surface, and the sky should be very bright
anyway.
“Interstellar
obscuration”: Originally proposed by Swiss astronomer
Jean-Philippe Loys de Chéseaux in 1744, and also subscribed by German Heinrich
Olbers in 1823. Realizing that even the furthest stars would anyway contribute
with some light to the sky, the darkness was attributed to the non-transparency
of the space. This argument is false because any absorbed radiation will
gradually heat the blocking material, which in time would end up by radiating
light as stars themselves.
“Hierarchical
structure”: Originally proposed by British astronomers John
Herschel in 1848, and Richard Proctor in 1870, it was based on the idea that
matter in the universe tends to become progressively clustered around
increasingly larger sizes, thus making that the minimum requested radius for
assuring that every line of sight eventually ends at a star’s surface
accordingly increases up to become indefinitely large. This argument is at
least compatible with our current cosmological believes, although its direct
effect on the final night darkness is of relative secondary importance.
“Cosmic
age too short”: Originally proposed by American
poet Edgar Allan Poe in 1848, and by German astronomer Johann Mädler in
1861. The basic idea was simply that light from distant stars still hasn’t
reached us, since light has a finite speed, and the universe a finite age. In
1901, the Scottish mathematician and physicist Lord Kelvin analysed
quantitatively the connection between the sky-cover fraction by stars and its
relative brightness, concluding that in order to obtain a sky continuously
bright as the Sun’s surface, it would be necessary to include all starlight up
to a distance of 3,000 trillion light years. As we can not receive any light
that has travelled from longer than 13.7 billion years (the present cosmic
particle horizon), this proposed solution is really on the right
track.
“Static
steady state”: Originally proposed by the American
astronomer William MacMillan in 1922. It was based in the assumption that the
universe, although infinite in size and time, was in a perpetual state of
evolution as matter slowly evolve into radiation, and viceversa (conserving the
total energy), thus preventing “autotransforming” starlight from reaching
distant locations. This model is incorrect, as shown by the irrefutable
evidence of an expanding universe obtained after the 1930s.
“Redshift”:
Originally proposed by the American cosmologist Hermann Bondi in 1955. It was
based in the fact that starlight from distant regions of the expanding universe
becomes affected by the cosmological redshift, so that the arriving carried
energy results increasingly weakened as the distance from stellar sources
enlarges. This redshift effect effectively accounts for a barely darker sky,
but is not one of its principal causes.
“Too
little energy”: Originally proposed by American
cosmologist Edward Harrison in 1964. It was derived after computing the amount
of energy required to create a bright sky, and finding out that it implies an
overwhelming large number: the observable universe would need 10 trillion times
more energy than it currently shows. This means that even if all matter in the
universe were transformed into energy according to Einstein’s famous formula,
the night sky would be barely brighter than it really is. This argument is
truly one of the few heavy weight solutions to the riddle.
The following
table summarizes all major alternatives so far presented:
|
Proposed
solution |
Author
& Date |
Viability |
|
Starlight is too feeble |
Digges (1576) |
wrong |
|
Dark cosmic wall |
Kepler (1610) |
wrong |
|
Stoic finite cosmos |
Guericke (1672), Clerke
(1890), Shapley (1917) |
wrong |
|
Geometric effect |
Halley (1720) |
wrong |
|
Interstellar obscuration |
Chéseaux (1744), Olbers
(1823) |
wrong |
|
Hierarchical structure |
Herschel (1848), Proctor
(1870) |
barely applies |
|
Cosmic age too short |
Poe (1848), Mädler
(1861), Kelvin (1901) |
truly
important |
|
Static steady state |
MacMillan (1922) |
wrong |
|
Redshift |
Bondi (1955) |
barely applies |
|
Too little energy |
Harrison (1964) |
truly
important |
As
seen, just a few proposed solutions to Olbers’ paradox are compatible with our
current cosmological model derived from General Relativity' solutions and its
description of the evolution of the universe from its main flagship: the Big
Bang.
This definite beginning imposes a finite age for the universe. If it is
13.7 billion years old, then light from stars further away than 13.7 billion
light years just has not had enough time to get here. This is true even if the
universe is infinite. And we did not even consider the fact that the luminous
age of stars is certainly limited, which actually makes “things even worse”.
The scarcity of the contained energy and matter in the whole universe
also becomes an independent valid reason to justify its darkness. As the
contained amount of energy and matter are intimately related to the way that
the universe has actually evolved according to General Relativity (Freedman
& Turner 2003), it is the particular developed evolution of the universe
which synthesizes at last the final explanation for the Olbers’ paradox.
The darkness effect attributed to the cosmological redshift has been
quantitative compared to the darkness effect just originated by the finiteness
of the age of the universe in the aforementioned cosmological context (Wesson
1989), resulting that the latter argument is far more important. However, not
all scientists agree with that model, and the redshift solution is still the
accepted one for those defenders of the “expanding steady- state” theory
(Vicino 2003).
The subject of the night darkness is an essential
cosmological question, as it is intimately related to the actual architecture
of the universe. In fact, the “easy” model of an endless spatial and perpetual
universe immediately becomes controversial with our real night.
Many solutions have been proposed to solve the so
called Olbers’s paradox, almost each one based on a different explanation for
the whole universe. The majority of those models have been proved to be wrong,
as they collide to our current cosmological believes.
Nowadays we confidently can assure that there are just two principal
factors that separately concur to produce a dark night sky: the universe is too
young, and it also contains far less matter than it would be required to. Two
other reasons (redshift and hierarchical structure) only contribute to just
darken an already dark sky.
The abovely metioned principal factors are clearly addressed by QUR-AN
I- The universe is young
For more physics, one can see (http://www.cs.unc.edu/~plaisted/ce/universe.html)
يقول تعالى: (قُلْ
أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَكْفُرُونَ بِالَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَرْضَ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ
وَتَجْعَلُونَ لَهُ أَنْدَادًا ذَلِكَ رَبُّ الْعَالَمِينَ * وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ
مِنْ فَوْقِهَا وَبَارَكَ فِيهَا وَقَدَّرَ فِيهَا أَقْوَاتَهَا فِي أَرْبَعَةِ
أَيَّامٍ سَوَاءً لِلسَّائِلِينَ * ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى
السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ
كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ وَأَوْحَى فِي كُلِّ سَمَاءٍ أَمْرَهَا وَزَيَّنَّا
السَّمَاءَ الدُّنْيَا بِمَصَابِيحَ وَحِفْظًا ذَلِكَ تَقْدِيرُ الْعَزِيزِ
الْعَلِيمِ) [فصلت 9-12].
(Say:
"Is it that ye deny Him Who created the Ardh in two Days (periods)? and do ye join equals with Him? He is the
Lord of (all) the Worlds." * He set on the (Ardh) Like mountains standing
firm, high above it, and bestowed blessings on the Ardh, and measured therein all
things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in four Days (periods), in
accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (sustenance). * Moreover, He
comprehended in His design the sky, and it had been (as) smoke: He said to it
and to the Ardh: "Come ye together,
willingly or unwillingly." They said: "We do come (together), in
willing obedience." *
So He
completed them as seven firmaments in two Days and He assigned to each heaven
its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and
(provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might,
Full of Knowledge. ) (S. 41, V. 9-12)
لعلّ المراد بالأرض ما في جهة السّفل
(أي الأرضين السّبع). أمّا الكرة الأرضيّة
فربّما كان قد خُلق أصلها ومادّتها.
وقالوا أريد باليومين هنا فترتين زمنيّتين (123-124) (عمري 2004 : خلق الكون).
إنّ القول بإيجاد الرّواسي يُفسَّرُ
بغير الجبال. ويتّفقُ هذا مع ما ذكره أبو
حيّان في البحر المحيط من أنّ دحو الأرض غير خلقها، وقد تأخّر عن خلق
السّماء. وأنّ جعل الرّواسي (الجبال)
والبركة في الأرض، وتقدير الأقوات لا يمكن إدخالها في الوجود إلاّ بعد أن صارت
الأرضُ موجودة (126). وإنّ تقدير الخلق قد
سبق الخلق بخمسين ألف سنة (1، 2، 3، 9). لذا يرى الباحثُ (عمري 2004 : خلق الكون) أنّ قوله سبحانه (وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا
رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا وَبَارَكَ فِيهَا) قد يشير إلى
إحداث عدم تجانس في مادّة الأرضين والّتي هي مادّة مظلمة (Dark matter) أو لربّما هو إشارة إلى بداية خلق مادّة عاديّة بدأت تتشكّل
وتتكوّن وترسو في الجزء العلوي من الأرض (الأرض بمعنى جهة السّفل). أي المادّة الّتي بدأت تتشكّل في أعالي الأرضين
السّبع (شكل 2) ؛ أي في الأماكن الأقرب إلى
الحيّز الداخلي للبناء السّماوي الأوّل (28، 60، 127). وهذه المادّة هي أساس البناء في الأرض العليا
بعد فتق الأرضين (28). وربّما تجسّد هذا
حاليّا كتغاير طفيف في درجة حرارة إشعاع الخلفيّة الكوني (شكل). ويراد بالأرض العليا (الأولى) تلك الّتي تحتضن
مجرّة درب التّبانة (شكل 2)؛ الّتي توجد فيها مجموعتنا
الشّمسيّة (28). ودليل هذا الفهم قول
سبحانه: (وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا). وقد اختار بعضهم أنّ خلق السّماء مقدّمٌ على
خلق الأرض، وأنّ الخلق في الآية تقدير وقضاء الله أن يخلق كرة الأرض (76) في
يومين، ولا يرادُ به التّكوين والإيجاد.
وهذا نظير قوله سبحانه (إنّ مثلَ عيسى عند الله كمثل آدم خلقه من ترابٍ ثمّ
قال له كن فيكون) [آل عمران 59]، ومحالٌ أن يقال للشيء الّذي وجد
كن، بل الخلق عبارة عن التّقدير (128، 129). وقوله تعالى: (وَقَدَّرَ فِيهَا
أَقْوَاتَهَا): أي بيّن خصائص الأرض وقدّر أرزاق ساكنيها
ومعايشهم من الجبال والأنهار والمياه والأشجار ... وقوله (فِي أَرْبَعَةِ أَيَّامٍ
سَوَاءً لِلسَّائِلِينَ) أي كلُّ ذلك من خلق الأرض (جهة
السّفل؛ أي الأرضين السّبع) وتقدير خلق كرتنا الأرضيّة وما تبعه من تقدير إحلال
البركة وتقدير الأقوات كائنٌ في تمام أربعة أيّامٍ- باليومين المتقدّمين- كاملة
مستوية لا زيادة فيها ولا نقصان (130). وقوله سبحانه (ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى
السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ) أي استوى إلى مادّة البناء السّماوي
وهي في حالة الدّخان (Coupled matter and radiation). وقوله تعالى (فَقَالَ لَهَا
وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا) أي إتيان ما فيهما ممّا ذكر من
المنافع، وقيل بيان كيفيّة التكوين إثر بيان كيفيّة التقدير. (طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا)
تمثيلاً لتحتّم تأثير قدرته تعالى فيهما واستحالة امتناعهما من ذلك. (قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ)
أي منقادين كما أمرا على مقتضى الحكمة البالغة.
(فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ)
أتقن أمر السّماوات حسبما تقتضيه الحكمةُ البالغة من جعلهنَّ سقفاً مسوّىً محفوظاً
مقبّباً في يومين. وهنا تكون أيّام الخلق
السّتّة قد اكتملت وانتهت.
قرب
مجرتنا من البناء السماوي الواسع والمتوسع
Our galaxy is close to an inflating smooth spherical shell that
surrounds the observable universe.
The Local Group of galaxies, beside
some other clusters, and sheets of galaxies are distributed over the top most
AROAD that is very close to "SAMA'" (an inflating smooth spherical
shell that acts as a boundary for the observable universe). The MWG is located in the neighborhood of
"SAMA'", and is very far away from the massive hot core of the
universe (Omari 2004, Omari 1999). ALLAH, the Merciful God, has
chosen for us the MWG which has a location very close to "SAMA'",
rather than being close to the core. Not
being aware of "SAMA'", astronomers are likely to be deceived by
images; that make the universe to look as if having a larger radius (Omari 1999). It is possible that the Universe is smaller than the
observable universe. In this case, what we take to be very distant galaxies may
actually be duplicate images of nearby galaxies,
formed by light that has circumnavigated the Universe. This is likely to be among
things indicated by the following verse:
(By the samaa (Firmament)
which returns), (Surah 86, verse 11)
ولعلّ هذا بعضٌ من مدلول قوله تعالى (وَالسَّمَاءِ ذَاتِ
الرَّجْعِ) (الطارق 11) ، على اعتبار أنّ السّماء هنا هي البناء.
The
closeness
of Our galaxy from Sama
is indicating by the followings hadiths:
- (حَدَّثَنَا
سُوَيْدٌ أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ أَخْبَرَنَا سَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ عَنْ أَبِي
السَّمْحِ عَنْ عِيسَى بْنِ هِلالٍ
الصَّدَفِيِّ عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عَمْرِو بْنِ الْعَاصِ قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ
اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهم عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ لَوْ أَنَّ
رَصَاصَةً مِثْلَ هَذِهِ وَأَشَارَ إِلَى مِثْلِ الْجُمْجُمَةِ أُرْسِلَتْ
مِنَ السَّمَاءِ إِلَى الأرْضِ
هِيَ مَسِيرَةُ خَمْسِ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ
لَبَلَغَتِ الأرْضَ قَبْلَ اللَّيْلِ وَلَوْ أَنَّهَا أُرْسِلَتْ مِنْ رَأْسِ
السِّلْسِلَةِ لَسَارَتْ أَرْبَعِينَ خَرِيفًا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ قَبْلَ أَنْ
تَبْلُغَ أَصْلَهَا أَوْ قَعْرَهَا) (قَالَ
أَبو عِيسَى هَذَا حَدِيثٌ إِسْنَادُهُ حَسَنٌ صَحِيحٌ وَسَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ
هُوَ مِصْرِيٌّ وَقَدْ رَوَى عَنْهُ اللَّيْثُ بْنُ سَعْدٍ وَغَيْرُ وَاحِدٍ مِنَ
الأئِمَّةِ. الترمذي كتاب صفة جهنّم رقم 2513) .
- (حَدَّثَنَا عَلِيُّ بْنُ إِسْحَاقَ أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ
اللَّهِ أَخْبَرَنَا سَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ عَنْ أَبِي السَّمْحِ عَنْ عِيسَى بْنِ
هِلالٍ الصَّدَفِيِّ عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ
بْنِ عَمْرٍو قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهم عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ لَوْ أَنَّ رَصَاصَةً مِثْلَ هَذِهِ وَأَشَارَ إِلَى مِثْلِ
جُمْجُمَةٍ أُرْسِلَتْ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ إِلَى الأرْضِ
وَهِيَ مَسِيرَةُ خَمْسِ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ
لَبَلَغَتِ الأرْضَ قَبْلَ اللَّيْلِ وَلَوْ أَنَّهَا أُرْسِلَتْ مِنْ رَأْسِ
السِّلْسِلَةِ لَسَارَتْ أَرْبَعِينَ خَرِيفًا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ قَبْلَ أَنْ
تَبْلُغَ أَصْلَهَا أَوْ قَعْرَهَا) (حَدَّثَنَاه الْحَسَنُ بْنُ عِيسَى
أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ الْمُبَارَكِ أَخْبَرَنَا سَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ
أَبُو شُجَاعٍ عَنْ أَبِي السَّمْحِ عَنْ عِيسَى بْنِ هِلالٍ عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عَمْرٍو عَنِ النَّبِيِّ
صَلَّى اللَّهم عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ مِثْلَهُ. أحمد مسند المكثرين من الصحابة 6561) .
- (لو أن رضاضة مثل هذه - وأشار إلى مثل الجمجمة -
أرسلت من السماء إلى الأرض هي مسيرة خمسمائة سنة ، لبلغت الأرض قبل الليل ، ولو
أنها أرسلت من رأس السلسلة لسارت أربعين خريفا الليل والنهار قبل أن تبلغ أصلها أو
قعرها ) (الراوي: عبدالله بن عمرو بن العاص المحدث: الترمذي - المصدر: سنن الترمذي - الصفحة أو الرقم: 2588، خلاصة حكم المحدث: إسناده حسن صحيح )
الرِّوايات السابقة للحديث الحسن الصحيح
المرفوع تؤكّدان قرب مجرَّتنا من البناء السّماوي الأوّل . كما تؤكِّدان أنَ طول السِّلسلة
من سلاسل جهنّم كبير جدّا بالمقارنة مع البعد بين
كرتنا الأرضيّة والبناء السّماوي الأوّل.
II-
Universe contains far less matter as compared to other components:
QUR-AN contains an exact implicit determination
to universe composition (http://www.mutah.edu.jo/eijaz/ALLAHsNames.htm):
II-a. Dark Matter:
(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِمَا
تُبْصِرُونَ * وَمَا لَا تُبْصِرُونَ)
(الحاقة س 69، الآيتان 38-39)
(Furthermore
I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not.) (S. 69 V 38-39)
(عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ الْكَبِيرُ الْمُتَعَالِ) (الرعد س 13 ، 9)
(He knoweth the Unseen
and that which is open: He is the Great, the most High.) (S. 13, V. 9)
وَقَوْله" عَالِم الْغَيْب
وَالشَّهَادَة " أَيْ يَعْلَم كُلّ شَيْء مِمَّا يُشَاهِدهُ الْعِبَاد
وَمِمَّا يَغِيب عَنْهُمْ وَلَا يَخْفَى عَلَيْهِ مِنْهُ شَيْء" (بن كثير).
(عَالِمِ الْغَيْبِ
وَالشَّهَادَةِ فَتَعَالَى عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ) (المؤمنون 23، 92)
(He knows what is hidden
and what is open; too high is He for the partners they attribute to Him!) (S.
23, V. 92)
"
عَالِم الْغَيْب وَالشَّهَادَة " أَيْ يَعْلَم مَا يَغِيب عَنْ
الْمَخْلُوقَات وَمَا يُشَاهِدُونَهُ " فَتَعَالَى عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ "
أَيْ تَقَدَّسَ وَتَنَزَّهَ وَتَعَالَى وَعَزَّ وَجَلَّ عَمَّا يَقُول
الظَّالِمُونَ وَالْجَاحِدُونَ (بن كثير).
(هُوَ اللَّهُ الَّذِي لَا
إِلَهَ إِلَّا هُوَ عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ هُوَ الرَّحْمَنُ الرَّحِيمُ) (الحشر 59، 22)
(Allah is He, than Whom there
is no other god; Who knows (all things) both secret and open (observable);
He, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.) (S. 59, V. 22)
QUR_AN
refers to both (things): الغيب (secret, hidden, unobservable) and الشَّهَادَة (observable, open). Secret is being mentioned by 50 verses, and open (observable) is being
mentioned by only 10 verses (the
following table):
من المعجم المفهرس (الجداول : عمري : القرآن يحدّد النِّسب للطاقة المظلمة والمادتين
المظلمة والعادية) ، يلاحظ أنّ المجموع
الكلي (Nd) لعدد الآيات التي تتحدث عن الغيب هو 
. هذه الآيات منها أربع (4) يذكرن الغيب النّسبي، ومنها (50) يذكرن الغيب الذي يستغرق الحياة الدّنيا .
وهذه المجموعة الثانية منها الآية الأخيرة
في الجدول قد يكون احتسابها في العدّ محلّ خلاف وهي : (وَمَا هُمْ
عَنْهَا بِغَائِبِينَ) (الانفطار 16). " وَمَا هُمْ عَنْهَا
(جَحِيم) بِغَائِبِينَ " بِمُخْرَجِينَ . ورد ذكر الغيب في الكلمات: الغيب ، الغيوب ، غائبة
، غيبه، غائبين.
من المعجم المفهرس (المرجع
السابق)، يلاحظ أنّ كلمة الشهادة (بالمعنى الذي هو عالم الشهادة الذي هو ضدّ عالم
الغيب) قد وردت في عشر ( (10آيات. العدد (NO) للآيات التي تتحدث عن عالم الشهادة هو 
النسبة بين عدد الآيات التي
تتحدث عن عالم الغيب (Nd) إلى عدد تلك التي
تتحدث عن المشاهد NO هي:
تبين من البحث السابق (عمري
: القرآن يحدّد النِّسب
للطاقة المظلمة والمادتين المظلمة والعادية)
أنّ نسبة عدد الآيات التي تتحدث عن الغيب وعالمه إلى تلك التي تتحدث عن عالم
الشهادة (
) يساوي النسبة بين المادة الكونية المظلمة (25.4% ) و المادة العاديّة من الذرات والنجوم والمجرات (4.75% ) .
وإنّ تساوي هاتين النّسبتين
لهو من إعجاز القرآن الكريم العلمي.
II-b. Dark Energy:
QUR-AN contains an exact implicit determination
to universe composition from dark energy (http://www.mutah.edu.jo/eijaz/ALLAHsNames.htm):
(وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا
بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ * وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) ] 48-47
الذّاريات[.
" We have built The Sama - Firmament - with might, We
indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand
it * And We have spread out Ardh -
Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the
galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47-
48).
This verse as well as many
others (see section III-c: Inflation and expanding
Universe) emphasise that the vast expansion of the universe is powered by ALLAH's force;
which is the source for the so called dark energy. This raises the question whether the ratio of
this dark energy (72%) is equal to the ratio of Qur-anic verses metioning ALLAH
by one of his names, attributes, or doings.
This turned to be the case (see the following table).
النسب في جميع السور (عمري : القرآن
يحدّد النِّسب للطاقة المظلمة والمادتين المظلمة والعادية):
The
ratio in All verses is 0.651.
جدول : النسب في السور، عدا
التي موضوعها الرئيسي هو يوم القيامة؛ حيث تزول السماء؛ وتنقطع من الحفظ الرّباني (عمري
: القرآن يحدّد النِّسب
للطاقة المظلمة والمادتين المظلمة والعادية):
Table:
The following table shows the Number of verses that mentions or refers to
ALLAH. The ratio in all verses except
those Surahs (chapters) whose main topic is addressing the day hereafter (when Sama – Firmament - will
collapse).
The ratio of these verses is (0.7054); which is very close to the ratio
of the so called Dark energy (0.72) in our universe.
|
رقم السورة |
إسم السورة |
عدد آياتها |
عدد آيات الأسماء والصفات |
عدد آيات الصفات أو الضمير العائد إلى الله |
|
1 |
الفاتحة |
7 |
4 |
3 |
|
2 |
البقرة |
286 |
209 |
30 |
|
3 |
آل عمران |
200 |
146 |
10 |
|
4 |
النساء |
176 |
136 |
14 |
|
5 |
المائدة |
120 |
94 |
6 |
|
6 |
الأنعام |
165 |
102 |
41 |
|
7 |
الأعراف |
206 |
85 |
66 |
|
8 |
الأنفال |
75 |
58 |
7 |
|
9 |
التوبة |
129 |
103 |
5 |
|
10 |
يونس |
109 |
65 |
22 |
|
11 |
هود |
123 |
61 |
28 |
|
12 |
يوسف |
111 |
44 |
8 |
|
13 |
الرعد |
43 |
34 |
4 |
|
14 |
إبراهيم |
52 |
42 |
4 |
|
15 |
الحجر |
99 |
13 |
37 |
|
16 |
النحل |
128 |
90 |
25 |
|
17 |
الإسراء |
111 |
43 |
46 |
|
18 |
الكهف |
110 |
41 |
29 |
|
19 |
مريم |
98 |
39 |
30 |
|
20 |
طه |
135 |
31 |
46 |
|
21 |
الأنبياء |
112 |
18 |
59 |
|
22 |
الحجّ |
78 |
56 |
8 |
|
23 |
المؤمنون |
118 |
36 |
33 |
|
24 |
النّور |
64 |
50 |
4 |
|
25 |
الفُرقان |
77 |
24 |
25 |
|
26 |
الشّعراء |
227 |
49 |
37 |
|
27 |
النّمل |
93 |
32 |
15 |
|
28 |
القصص |
88 |
37 |
29 |
|
29 |
العنكبوت |
69 |
35 |
21 |
|
30 |
الرّوم |
60 |
26 |
22 |
|
31 |
لقمان |
34 |
23 |
4 |
|
32 |
السّجدة |
30 |
11 |
11 |
|
33 |
الأحزاب |
73 |
53 |
9 |
|
34 |
سبأ |
54 |
22 |
22 |
|
35 |
فاطر |
45 |
29 |
7 |
|
36 |
يس |
83 |
17 |
34 |
|
37 |
الصّافّات |
182 |
25 |
45 |
|
38 |
ص~ |
88 |
13 |
31 |
|
39 |
الزُّمر |
75 |
55 |
6 |
|
40 |
غافر |
85 |
48 |
10 |
|
41 |
فصّلت |
54 |
27 |
12 |
|
42 |
الشّورى |
53 |
31 |
13 |
|
43 |
الزّخرف |
89 |
21 |
33 |
|
45 |
الجاثية |
37 |
20 |
10 |
|
46 |
الأحقاف |
35 |
17 |
7 |
|
47 |
محمّد |
38 |
24 |
7 |
|
48 |
الفتح |
29 |
25 |
3 |
|
49 |
الحجرات |
18 |
14 |
0 |
|
51 |
الذّاريات |
60 |
8 |
13 |
|
55 |
الرحمن |
78 |
36 |
13 |
|
57 |
الحديد |
29 |
23 |
3 |
|
58 |
المجَادلة |
22 |
22 |
0 |
|
59 |
الحشر |
24 |
19 |
0 |
|
60 |
الممتحنة |
13 |
12 |
0 |
|
61 |
الصّفّ |
14 |
11 |
3 |
|
62 |
الجُمُعة |
11 |
10 |
1 |
|
63 |
المنافقون |
11 |
10 |
1 |
|
64 |
التّغابن |
18 |
16 |
1 |
|
65 |
الطّلاق |
12 |
11 |
0 |
|
66 |
التّحريم |
12 |
10 |
1 |
|
67 |
الملك |
30 |
10 |
9 |
|
68 |
القلم |
52 |
8 |
9 |
|
71 |
نوح |
28 |
11 |
10 |
|
72 |
الجنّ |
28 |
17 |
4 |
|
80 |
عبس |
42 |
0 |
13 |
|
87 |
الأعلى |
19 |
3 |
6 |
|
88 |
الغاشية |
26 |
1 |
6 |
|
90 |
البلد |
20 |
0 |
6 |
|
91 |
الشّمس |
15 |
2 |
7 |
|
92 |
الليل |
14 |
1 |
10 |
|
93 |
الضّحى |
11 |
3 |
3 |
|
94 |
الشَرح |
8 |
1 |
4 |
|
95 |
التّين |
8 |
1 |
6 |
|
97 |
القدر |
5 |
1 |
1 |
|
98 |
البيّنة |
8 |
3 |
3 |
|
103 |
العصر |
3 |
0 |
2 |
|
105 |
الفيل |
5 |
1 |
3 |
|
106 |
قريش |
4 |
1 |
2 |
|
107 |
الماعون |
7 |
0 |
3 |
|
108 |
الكوثر |
3 |
1 |
1 |
|
109 |
الكافرون |
6 |
0 |
3 |
|
110 |
النّصر |
3 |
3 |
0 |
|
112 |
الإخلاص |
4 |
2 |
2 |
|
113 |
الفلق |
5 |
1 |
1 |
|
114 |
النّاس |
6 |
3 |
0 |
|
|
المجموع |
5235 |
2540 |
1128 |
(1128+2540)/ 5235 = 0.701
النسب مع البسملة:
(1128+2540+84)/
(5235 +84) = 0.7054
III- Redshift and
hierarchical structure only contribute to just darken an already dark sky.
III-a: An already dark
sky
وتؤكّد الآيات والأحاديث أنَّ السّموات والأرض كانتا رتقاً عند
بداية الخلق (أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ
السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ
الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. وأمّا الآن فهنَّ بسط وفتق
(عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).
"Do not the
Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Samaa: upper part of
universe) and the Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe) were Ratq (joined,
coupled), before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).
The
Arabic word (Ratq), implies that at early stages of Universe,
matter used to have smeared and continuous mass distribution with high density,
and both matter and radiation were coupled together. Later on, God clove them asunder (Fatq):
Implying that matter had started clumping and holding together to help forming seven distinct
firmaments (Samawat) and seven interior levels of Ardh (very
likely to be seven distinct shells of dark matter). Also, later the universe became transparent,
and matter is no more coupled to radiation (Fatq). Consequently Samaa (Upper part of
Universe) and Ardh (Interior part of Universe) are
decoupled; each into seven distinct and probably concentric spherical
shells. The seven Ardhean (plural of Ardh: Ground) mentioned by authentic hadiths
(Prophet's sayings) are seven distinct levels.
It is possible that galaxies and clusters of galaxies are distributed
over Ardhean. As such, Ardhean
represent a major part of the cosmic dark matter that supports forming
gravitationally bounded galaxies and clusters ([v]).
Hot:
(ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى
إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا
أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ) [فصّلت آية 11-12
].
Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Sama (upper
part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye,
willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'. So He completed them as
seven firmaments in two Days (Periods) …" (Surah 41, Verses
11-12).
(قَالَتَا
أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ) : على
الفور. (السَّمَاءِ
وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ) تكوّنت على الفور.
At early stages, the Universe
was hot and opaque as indicated by the verse: "and
it had been smoke".
Primordial Dense Initial
Condition:
(هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ لَكُمْ مَا فِي الْأَرْضِ جَمِيعًا ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ فَسَوَّاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ وَهُوَ بِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ
عَلِيمٌ) (البقرة 29).
One of the indications of
Ardh is seven Ardhean (plural of Ardh: The interior; or lower;
part of the Universe) (Omari,
2004;
Omari, 2004): "He it is Who created
for you all that is in coupled Ardhean.
Then He Istawâ towards the Samaa (highness) and give order and
perfection to the seven Samawat (plural of Samaa: canopy) and He
is the All-Knower of everything" (Al-Baqarah 2:29).
(أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ
شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. وأمّا الآن فهنَّ بسط وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).
"Do not the Unbelievers
see that the Samawat (plural of Samaa: upper part of universe) and the Ardh (cold dark matter) were Ratq (joined, coupled), before We Fatq
(clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).
III-b: Redshift also contributes to darken an already dark sky
This is indicated by the following
verses:
(أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا * رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا
فَسَوَّاهَا * وَأَغْطَشَ لَيْلَهَا وَأَخْرَجَ ضُحَاهَا) [النّازعات الآيات 27-29] .
([27] What! Are ye the more
difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed
it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and
perfection. [29] Its night doth He endow with darkness, and its
splendour doth He bring out (with sun light). (S. 79, V. 27-29).
(الْحَمْدُ
لِلَّهِ الَّذِي خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَجَعَلَ الظُّلُمَاتِ
وَالنُّورَ ثُمَّ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا بِرَبِّهِمْ يَعْدِلُونَ) (الأنعام 1)
(Praise
be to Allah, Who created the samawat (heavens, firmaments, skies) and the Ardh (Ground;
interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies ), and
made the Darkness and the Light. Yet those who reject Faith hold
(others) as equal with their Guardian-Lord.) (S. 6, V. 1).
(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِالْخُنَّسِ * الْجَوَارِي الْكُنَّسِ * وَاللَّيْلِ إِذَا
عَسْعَسَ)
(التكوير س 81 ،
آية 15-17)
(So verily I call to witness those (Stars and galaxies) that
hide and recede. Constantly
moving, and accreating. And
the Night as it gets Darker) (S. 81; V. 15-17)
III-c: Inflation and
expanding Universe:
Inflation is Referred to by the followingVerses:
(ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى
إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا
أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ) [فصّلت آية 11-12
].
Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Sama (upper
part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye,
willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'. So He completed them as
seven firmaments in two Days (Periods) …" (Surah 41, Verses
11-12).
(وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا
بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ * وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) ] 48-47
الذّاريات[.
" We have built The Sama - Firmament - with might, We
indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand
it * And We have spread out Ardh -
Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the
galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47-
48).
(أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا * رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا
فَسَوَّاهَا * وأغطش ليلها وأخرج
ضحاها) [النّازعات 27-29].
(What! Are ye the more difficult to create or
the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: On high hath He raised its canopy, and He
hath given it order and perfection.
وأغطش ليلها وأخرج ضحاها ) (Surah 79, Verses 27-28).
(وَالسَّمَاءَ رَفَعَهَا
وَوَضَعَ الْمِيزَانَ) (الرحمن 7)
(And the Firmament has He raised high, and He has set up the
Balance (of Justice),) (S. 55, V. 7)
- (وَإِلَى
السَّمَاءِ كَيْفَ رُفِعَتْ) سورة الغاشية آية رقم 18 .
(And at the Sama – Firmaments ; sky; galaxies -, how it is raised high? ) (S. 88, V. 18).
وإنّ كون النظام معزول
ومغلق هو بعض مما تتضمنه الآية الكريمة: (وَالسَّمَاءِ ذَاتِ الرَّجْعِ) (الطارق آية 11)
، على اعتبار أنّ السّماء هنا هي البناء.
This
adiabatic (closed) system is likely to be among things indicated by the
following verse:
(By the Firmament which returns ),
(Surah 86, verse 11)
Croswell, Ken
2001, “Wondering in the Dark”, Sky & Telescope magazine, December
2001, pages 44-50
Freedman,
Wendy L. and Turner, Michael S. 2003, “Cosmology in the New Millennium”,
Sky & Telescope magazine, October 2003, pages 31-41
Harrison,
Edward 2000, “Cosmology, The Science of the Universe”, 2nd
Ed, Cambridge University Press, Chapter 24: Darkness at night, pages
491-514
Vicino, Gonzalo
2003, “Relatividad y Cosmología”, A. Monteverde y Cía.
S.A., Chapter 12: Estado actual de la cosmología: Afirmaciones,
disidencias y opiniones, pages 161-184
Wesson, Paul
S. 1989, “The real reason the night sky is dark: Correcting a myth in
astronomy teaching”, Journal of the British Astronomical Association, vol.
99, no. 1, p. 10-13
The image included on page 2 (“The magnificent
Milky Way at Sagitarius”) was taken by the author on September 14th,
2004 (piggyback, Kodak Ultra ISO 400, 135-mm, f/2.8, 4 min exp.)
To English
To Arabic-English
To Arabic
[1] Sometimes referred to as the “gravity
paradox”, it directly resulted from considering that the attraction between
different parts of a finite universe would cause, in Newton’ own words, “to
fall down into the middle of the whole space, and there compose one great
spherical mass”.
[2] The total light received from the
larger number of stars embraced by a further distant shell would result exactly
compensated by the increased dilution due to the longer distance.