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Dark Energy
Linked to Some Verses from Qur-an
أ. د. حسين
يوسف راشد
عمري
rashed@mutah.edu.jo
قسم
الفيزياء/
جامعة مؤتة/
الأردن
Some Qur'anic verses and their interpretation are
incorporated into this topic, which is taken primarily from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy#column-one#column-one).
The Article
In physical
cosmology, astronomy and celestial
mechanics,
dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that permeates all of space and
tends to increase the rate of expansion of the universe.[1] Dark energy is the most popular way
to explain recent observations and experiments that the universe appears to be expanding at an accelerating rate. In the standard model of cosmology, dark energy currently accounts for
74% of the total mass-energy of the universe.[2]
Two proposed forms
for dark energy are the cosmological constant, a constant energy density filling space
homogeneously,[3] and scalar
fields such
as quintessence or moduli, dynamic quantities whose
energy density can vary in time and space. Contributions from scalar
fields that
are constant in space are usually also included in the cosmological constant.
The cosmological constant is physically equivalent to vacuum energy. Scalar fields which do change in
space can be difficult to distinguish from a cosmological constant because the
change may be extremely slow.
High-precision
measurements of the expansion of the universe are required to understand how the expansion rate changes
over time. In general relativity, the evolution of the expansion rate is
parameterized by the cosmological equation of state. Measuring the equation of state of dark energy is
one of the biggest efforts in observational cosmology today.
Adding the
cosmological constant to cosmology's standard FLRW metric leads to the Lambda-CDM model, which has been referred to as the
"standard model" of cosmology because of its precise agreement with
observations. Dark energy has been used as a crucial ingredient in a recent
attempt[4] to formulate a cyclic model for the universe.
Evidence for dark energy
Supernovae
|
They measured that supernovas far away in the
universe were accelerating away much faster than the ones nearby. October 4, 2011 The discovery that the universe is
expanding at an accelerating pace was "astounding," the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences says. It suggests that "dark energy" is
pushing the universe apart أظهرت
نتائج
الرّصد أن
السوبرنوفا
في مواقع بعيدة
في الكون
تتسارع
مبتعدة أسرع
بكثير من تلك
التي في
أماكن قريبة. في اليوم
الرابع من
الشهر
العاشر لعام 2011 ،
كان اكتشاف
أن الكون
يتوسع بخطى
متسارعة اكتشافاً
مذهلا ؛ حسب
قول
الأكاديمية
الملكية السويدية
للعلوم.
ويبيّن هذا
أن " الطاقة
المظلمة "
تدفع بأجزاء الكون
بعيدا عن
بعضها البعض. |
In 1998, published
observations of Type Ia supernovae ("one-A") by the High-z Supernova Search Team [5] followed in 1999 by the Supernova Cosmology Project [6] suggested that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. Since then, these observations have been supported by several
independent sources. Measurements of the cosmic microwave background, gravitational lensing, and the large scale structure of the cosmos as well as improved
measurements of supernovae have been consistent with the Lambda-CDM model.[7]
Supernovae are useful
for cosmology because they are excellent standard candles across cosmological distances. They
allow the expansion history of the Universe to be measured by looking at the
relationship between the distance to an object and its redshift, which gives how fast it is receding
from us. The relationship is roughly linear, according to Hubble's law. It is relatively easy to measure
redshift, but finding the distance to an object is more difficult. Usually,
astronomers use standard candles: objects for which the intrinsic
brightness, the absolute
magnitude, is
known. This allows the object's distance to be measured from its actually
observed brightness, or apparent
magnitude.
Type Ia supernovae are the best-known standard candles across cosmological
distances because of their extreme, and extremely consistent, brightness.
Recent observations
of supernovae are consistent with a universe made up 71.3% of dark energy and
27.4% of a combination of dark matter and baryonic matter.[8]
Dark matter and Dark energy are referred to by
the verses:
- (وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا
لَمُوسِعُونَ * وَالأرْضَ
فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ
الْمَاهِدُونَ * وَمِنْ
كُلِّ شَيْءٍ
خَلَقْنَا
زَوْجَيْنِ
لَعَلَّكُمْ
تَذَكَّرُونَ) ]
49-47 الذّاريات[.
" We have built The Sama -
Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness
of Space and continue to expand it * And We have
spread out Ardh - Ground; interior or
lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out * And of everything We have created pairs: that ye may receive instruction " (Surah No.
51, verse 47- 49).
Examples of such pairs are: Dark matter (Sama – Firmament -, and Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark
matter holding the galaxies) and Matter. Another pair is Dark
energy and energy.
مجموع
رقمي الآيتين
(95) يساوي
القيمة
الحاليّة لمجموع
نسبة الطاقة
المظلمة
والمادّة
المظلمة:
The sum for the numbers of these two verses, 95, is equal to the present value of the sum of
percentages of dark matter and dark energy:
(23%
+ 72%) = 95%
[9]
"Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the Ardh (lower - interior - part of
the early Universe; large scale structure of dark matter) in two Days (periods)?
and do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds." [10]
He set on the (Ardh). Like Mountains standing firm, above it, and bestowed blessings on
the Ardh, and measured therein all things to give them nourishment in due
proportion, in precisely four Days (periods) for those who seek knowledge,
and also in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (sustenance). " (Surah 41, Verses
9-10).
(فَلَا
أُقْسِمُ
بِمَا
تُبْصِرُونَ *
وَمَا لَا
تُبْصِرُونَ)
(الحاقة س 69، الآيتان 38-39)
"Furthermore
I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not." (S. 69 V 38-39)
-
(سُبْحَانَ
الَّذِي خَلَقَ
الْأَزْوَاجَ
كُلَّهَا مِمَّا
تُنْبِتُ
الْأَرْضُ
وَمِنْ
أَنْفُسِهِمْ
وَمِمَّا
لَا
يَعْلَمُونَ * وَآيَةٌ
لَهُمُ
اللَّيْلُ
نَسْلَخُ
مِنْهُ
النَّهَارَ
فَإِذَا هُمْ
مُظْلِمُونَ)
[يس 36-37]
(Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs all things that the earth produces,
as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. * And a Sign for them is
the Night: We withdraw therefrom the Day, and behold they are plunged in
darkness.) (S. 36, V. 36-37)
- (والَّذِي
خَلَقَ
الْأَزْوَاجَ
كُلَّهَا) [الزّخرف 12]
[12] That has created pairs in all things, and has made
for you ships and cattle on which ye ride,) (S. 43, V. 12)
- (وَمِنْ
كُلِّ شَيْءٍ
خَلَقْنَا
زَوْجَيْنِ
لَعَلَّكُمْ
تَذَكَّرُونَ) [الذّاريات
49].
[49] And of
everything We have created pairs: that ye may
receive instruction. ) (S. 51, V. 49)
(وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا
لَمُوسِعُونَ)
(أَأَنْتُمْ
أَشَدُّ
خَلْقًا أَمْ
السَّمَاءُ
بَنَاهَا *
رَفَعَ
سَمْكَهَا
فَسَوَّاهَا)
[النّازعات 27-28]
[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create
or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high
hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection. ) (S. 79,
V. 27)
(وَالسَّمَاءَ
رَفَعَهَا
وَوَضَعَ
الْمِيزَانَ)
(الرحمن 7)
(And the Firmament has He raised high, and He
has set up the Balance (of Justice),) (S. 55, V. 7)
(اللَّهُ
الَّذِي
رَفَعَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
بِغَيْرِ
عَمَدٍ
تَرَوْنَهَا
ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى عَلَى
الْعَرْشِ
وَسَخَّرَ
الشَّمْسَ
وَالْقَمَرَ
كُلٌّ
يَجْرِي
لِأَجَلٍ
مُسَمًّى يُدَبِّرُ
الْأَمْرَ
يُفَصِّلُ
الْآيَاتِ لَعَلَّكُمْ
بِلِقَاءِ
رَبِّكُمْ
تُوقِنُونَ) (الرعد 2)
(Allah is He Who raised the
Samawat – Firmaments - without any pillars that ye can see; then He
established Himself on the Throne (of Authority); He has subjected the sun and
the moon (to His Law)! Each one runs (its course) for a term appointed. He doth
regulate all affairs, explaining the Signs in detail, that ye may believe with
certainty in the meeting with your Lord.) (S. 13, V. 2)
يُخْبِر
اللَّه
تَعَالَى
عَنْ كَمَالِ
قُدْرَته
وَعَظِيم
سُلْطَانه
أَنَّهُ
الَّذِي
بِإِذْنِهِ
وَأَمْره
رَفَعَ
السَّمَوَات
بِغَيْرِ
عَمَد بَلْ
بِإِذْنِهِ
وَأَمْره
وَتَسْخِيره
رَفَعَهَا
عَنْ
الْأَرْض بُعْدًا
لَا تُنَال
(بن كثير).
(خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
بِغَيْرِ
عَمَدٍ
تَرَوْنَهَا
وَأَلْقَى
فِي الْأَرْضِ
رَوَاسِيَ
أَنْ تَمِيدَ
بِكُمْ
وَبَثَّ
فِيهَا مِنْ
كُلِّ
دَابَّةٍ
وَأَنْزَلْنَا
مِنَ
السَّمَاءِ
مَاءً
فَأَنْبَتْنَا
فِيهَا مِنْ
كُلِّ زَوْجٍ
كَرِيمٍ)
(لقمان 10)
(He created the Samawat
– Firmaments - without any pillars that ye can see; He set on the earth
mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and He scattered
through it beasts of all kinds. We send down rain from the sky, and produce on
the earth every kind of noble creature, in pairs.) (S. 31, V. 10)
يُبَيِّن
سُبْحَانه
بِهَذَا
قُدْرَته الْعَظِيمَة
عَلَى خَلْق
السَّمَاوَات
وَالْأَرْض
وَمَا
فِيهِمَا
وَمَا
بَيْنهمَا
فَقَالَ
تَعَالَى "
خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَات
بِغَيْرِ
عَمَد " قَالَ
الْحَسَن
وَقَتَادَة
لَيْسَ لَهَا
عَمَد
مَرْئِيَّة
وَلَا غَيْر مَرْئِيَّة
. وَقَالَ
اِبْن
عَبَّاس
وَعِكْرِمَة
وَمُجَاهِد
لَهَا عَمَد
لَا
تَرَوْنَهَا (بن
كثير).
يوسّع
الله سبحانه
وتعالى بناء
السّماء، فيتعاظم
الفراغ في
الكون،
وتزداد
الطاقة المظلمة. فينتج
عنه فرش ومهاد
الأرضين (المادّة
المظلمة التي
تحضن جاذبيّا
مجرّات الكون).
وبالتالي تتباعد
المسافات بين
المجرّات.
ALLAH (GOD) have built The Sama - Firmament
- with might, He indeed Have vast power; to create its vastness and continue to
expand it, and on high hath He raised its canopy. This gives rise to the so called negative
pressure (Dark energy); since Sama is a solid construction (roof) with no
cracks, and completely covers and surrounds the universe. This is clearly indicated by the verses:
وفيما
يلي بعض
الآيات التي
ترد فيها
السّماء بمعنى
البناء
المحكم ،
المتماسك من
غير فطور أو
شقوق:
- (الَّذِي
جَعَلَ
لَكُمْ
الْأَرْضَ
فِرَاشًا
وَالسَّمَاءَ
بِنَاءً)
سورة البقرة
آية رقم 22 .
(Who has made the Ardh your couch, and
the Sama – Firmament - your canopy; ) (S. 2, V.
22).
- (هُوَ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
لَكُمْ مَا
فِي الْأَرْضِ
جَمِيعًا
ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى
إِلَى
السَّمَاءِ
فَسَوَّاهُنَّ
سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
وَهُوَ
بِكُلِّ
شَيْءٍ عَلِيمٌ)
سورة البقرة
آية رقم 29 .
(It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on Ardh; then He turned to the Sama and made them into
seven firmaments. And of all things He hath perfect knowledge. ) (S. 2, V. 29)
- (وَجَعَلْنَا
السَّمَاءَ
سَقْفًا
مَحْفُوظًا
وَهُمْ عَنْ
آيَاتِهَا
مُعْرِضُونَ)
سورة
الأنبياء آية
رقم 32 .
(And We have made the Sama – Firmament - as a canopy well guarded: yet do they
turn away from the Signs which these things (point to)!
) (S. 21, V. 32)
- (يَوْمَ
نَطْوِي
السَّمَاءَ
كَطَيِّ
السِّجِلِّ
لِلْكُتُبِ
كَمَا
بَدَأْنَا
أَوَّلَ
خَلْقٍ
نُعِيدُهُ
وَعْدًا
عَلَيْنَا
إِنَّا
كُنَّا
فَاعِلِينَ)
سورة
الأنبياء آية
رقم 104.
(The Day that We roll up the Sama – Firmament - like a scroll rolled up for books
(completed), even as We produced the first Creation, so shall We produce a new
one: a promise We have undertaken: truly shall We fulfill it. ) (S. 21, V. 104)
- (أَلَمْ
تَر أَنَّ
اللَّهَ
سَخَّرَ
لَكُمْ مَا
فِي الْأَرْضِ
وَالْفُلْكَ
تَجْرِي فِي
الْبَحْرِ بِأَمْرِهِ
وَيُمْسِكُ
السَّمَاءَ
أَنْ تَقَعَ
عَلَى
الْأَرْضِ
إِلَّا
بِإِذْنِهِ إِنَّ
اللَّهَ
بِالنَّاسِ
لَرَءُوفٌ
رَحِيمٌ)
سورة الحج آية
رقم 65 .
) Seest thou not that Allah has made subject to you (men) all
that is on the earth, and the ships that sail through the sea by His command?
He withholds the Sama –
Firmament ; sky - (not rain as in yusuf Ali) from falling on the Ardh
except by His leave: for Allah is Most Kind and Most Merciful to man. ) (S. 22, V. 65)
- (فَقَضَاهُنَّ
سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
فِي يَوْمَيْنِ
وَأَوْحَى
فِي كُلِّ
سَمَاءٍ
أَمْرَهَا)
سورة فصلت آية
رقم 12.
) So He completed them as seven Samawat – Firmaments - in two Days and He assigned to each Sama – Firmament - its
duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided
it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of
Knowledge. ) (S. 41, V. 12)
- (أَفَلَمْ
يَنْظُرُوا
إِلَى
السَّمَاءِ
فَوْقَهُمْ
كَيْفَ
بَنَيْنَاهَا
وَزَيَّنَّاهَا
وَمَا لَهَا
مِنْ فُرُوجٍ)
سورة ق آية
رقم 6
) Do they not look at the Sama –
Firmaments ; sky - above them? How We have constructed it and adorned
it, and there are no cracks (gaps) in it? ) (S. 50, V. 6)
- (فَإِذَا
انشَقَّتْ
السَّمَاءُ
فَكَانَتْ وَرْدَةً
كَالدِّهَانِ)
سورة الرحمن
آية رقم 37 .
(When the Sama – Firmaments ; sky -
is rent asunder, and it becomes red like
ointment: ) (S. 55, V. 37)
- (هُوَ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ
ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى
عَلَى
الْعَرْشِ)
سورة الحديد
آية رقم 4
(He it is Who created the Samawat –
Firmaments ; sky - and the Ardh in six
Days, and is moreover firmly established on the Throne (of authority). ) (S. 57, V. 4)
- (وَانشَقَّتْ
السَّمَاءُ
فَهِيَ
يَوْمَئِذٍ
وَاهِيَةٌ)
سورة الحاقة
آية رقم 16.
)And the Sama
– Firmaments ; sky - will be rent asunder, for it will that Day be
flimsy, ) (S. 69, V. 16)
- (وَيَوْمَ
تَشَقَّقُ
السَّمَاءُ
بِالْغَمَامِ
وَنُزِّلَ
الْمَلَائِكَةُ
تَنزِيلًا)
سورة الفرقان
آية رقم 25 .
)The Day the Sama
– Firmaments ; sky; heaven - shall be rent asunder with clouds, and
angels shall be sent down, descending (in ranks), ) (S.
25, V. 25)
- (يَوْمَ
تَكُونُ
السَّمَاءُ
كَالْمُهْلِ)
سورة المعارج
آية رقم 8 .
(The Day that the Sama – Firmaments ;
sky - will be like molten brass, ) (S. 70, V. 8)
- (السَّمَاءُ
مُنْفَطِرٌ
بِهِ كَانَ
وَعْدُهُ
مَفْعُولًا)
سورة المزمل
آية رقم 18.
)Whereon the Sama – Firmaments ; sky
- will be cleft asunder? His Promise needs must be accomplished. ) (S. 73, V. 18)
- (وَإِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
فُرِجَتْ)
سورة
المرسلات آية
رقم 9 .
(When the Sama – Firmaments ; sky -
is cleft asunder; ) (S. 77, V. 9)
- (أَأَنْتُمْ
أَشَدُّ
خَلْقًا أَمْ
السَّمَاءُ
بَنَاهَا * رَفَعَ
سَمْكَهَا
فَسَوَّاهَا)
سورة
النازعات آية
رقم 27 .
)What! Are ye the more difficult to
create or the Sama – Firmaments ; sky - (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it. On high hath He raised its canopy, and He
hath given it order and perfection.) (S. 79, V. 27-28)
- (وَإِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
كُشِطَتْ)
سورة التكوير
آية رقم 11 .
)When the Sama
– Firmaments ; sky, galaxies - is unveiled; )
(S. 81, V. 11)
- (إِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
انفَطَرَتْ)
سورة
الانفطار آية
رقم 1 .
(When the Sama – Firmaments ; sky -
is cleft asunder; ) (S. 82, V. 1)
- (إِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
انشَقَّتْ)
سورة
الانشقاق آية
رقم 1 .
)When the Sama
– Firmaments ; sky - is rent
asunder, ) (S. 84, V. 1)
- (وَإِلَى
السَّمَاءِ
كَيْفَ
رُفِعَتْ)
سورة الغاشية
آية رقم 18 .
(And at the Sama – Firmaments ; sky;
galaxies -, how it is raised high? ) (S. 88, V.
18)
- (وَفُتِحَتْ
السَّمَاءُ
فَكَانَتْ
أَبْوَابًا)
سورة النبأ
آية رقم 19 .
(And the Sama – Firmaments - shall be opened and become doors,) (S. 78, V. 19)
- ( إِنَّ
الَّذِينَ
كَذَّبُوا
بِآيَاتِنَا
وَاسْتَكْبَرُوا
عَنْهَا لَا
تُفَتَّحُ لَهُمْ
أَبْوَابُ
السَّمَاءِ
وَلَا
يَدْخُلُونَ
الْجَنَّةَ
حَتَّى
يَلِجَ
الْجَمَلُ فِي
سَمِّ
الْخِيَاطِ
وَكَذَلِكَ
نَجْزِي الْمُجْرِمِينَ)
سورة الأعراف
آية رقم 40 .
(To those who reject Our Signs and treat them with arrogance, no
opening will there be of the gates of Sama –
Firmaments ; sky; heaven -, nor will
they enter the Garden, until the camel can pass through the eye of the needle:
such is Our reward for those in sin. ) (S. 7, V. 40)
- (وَلَوْ
فَتَحْنَا
عَلَيْهِمْ
بَابًا مِنْ السَّمَاءِ
فَظَلُّوا
فِيهِ
يَعْرُجُونَ)
سورة الحجر
آية رقم 14.
(Even if We opened out to them a gate from Sama – Firmaments ; sky -, and
they were to continue ascending therein, . ) (S.
15, V. 14).
They will
continue ascending due to the negative pressure; which overwhelm gravity.
-
(وَالسَّمَاءِ
ذَاتِ
الرَّجْعِ) (الطارق
آية 11) ، على اعتبار
أنّ السّماء
هنا هي
البناء.
(By the Sama – Firmament; sky; earths atmosphere-
which returns) (Surah
86, verse 11)
Also there are many Qur'anic verses in
which the Arabic word Samaa' means Firmament (canopy); which is likely to be
dark matter. Also the Arabic word Ardh
means seven distinct layers of dark matter.
Some of these verses are:
ومن
هذا القبيل
الآيات التي
تتحدّث عن خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ.
فالمراد هنا
هو السموات
السّبع والأرضين
السّبع.
وفيا يلي هذه
الآيات الكريمات:
(إِنَّ
رَبَّكُمُ
اللَّهُ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ
ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
عَلَى
الْعَرْشِ
يُغْشِي اللَّيْلَ
النَّهَارَ
يَطْلُبُهُ
حَثِيثًا
وَالشَّمْسَ
وَالْقَمَرَ
وَالنُّجُومَ
مُسَخَّرَاتٍ
بِأَمْرِهِ
أَلَا لَهُ
الْخَلْقُ
وَالْأَمْرُ
تَبَارَكَ
اللَّهُ رَبُّ
الْعَالَمِينَ)
(الأعراف س7،
54).
[54] Your Guardian-Lord is Allah, Who created the Samawat
(seven firmaments) and the Ardh (seven Ardhean; distinct layers of dark matter)
in six Days, then He established Himself on the Throne (of authority): He
draweth the night as a veil o'er the day, each seeking the other in rapid
succession: He created the sun, the moon, and the stars, (all) governed by laws
under His Command. Is it not His to create and to govern? Blessed be Allah, the
Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds!
(إِنَّ
رَبَّكُمُ
اللَّهُ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ
ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
عَلَى
الْعَرْشِ يُدَبِّرُ
الْأَمْرَ
مَا مِنْ
شَفِيعٍ
إِلَّا مِنْ
بَعْدِ
إِذْنِهِ
ذَلِكُمُ
اللَّهُ رَبُّكُمْ
فَاعْبُدُوهُ
أَفَلَا
تَذَكَّرُونَ) (يونس
س10،
3).
[3] Verily your Lord
is Allah, Who created the Samawat (seven firmaments) and the Ardh (seven
Ardhean) in six Days, then He established Himself on the Throne (of
authority), regulating and governing all things. No intercessor (can plead with
Him) except after His leave (hath been obtained). This is Allah your Lord; Him
therefore serve ye: will yet not receive admonition?
(وَهُوَ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ
وَكَانَ عَرْشُهُ
عَلَى
الْمَاءِ
لِيَبْلُوَكُمْ
أَيُّكُمْ
أَحْسَنُ
عَمَلًا
وَلَئِنْ
قُلْتَ
إِنَّكُمْ
مَبْعُوثُونَ
مِنْ بَعْدِ
الْمَوْتِ
لَيَقُولَنَّ
الَّذِينَ
كَفَرُوا إِنْ
هَذَا إِلَّا
سِحْرٌ
مُبِينٌ) (هود
س11،
7).
[7] He it is Who
created the Samawat (seven firmaments) and the Ardh (seven Ardhean) in
six Days - and His Throne was over the Waters - that He might try you, which of
you is best in conduct. But if thou wert to say to them, "Ye shall indeed
be raised up after death," the Unbelievers would be sure to say,
"This is nothing but obvious sorcery!"
(الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
وَمَا
بَيْنَهُمَا
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ
ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
عَلَى
الْعَرْشِ
الرَّحْمَنُ
فَاسْأَلْ
بِهِ
خَبِيرًا)
(الفرقان س25،
59).
[59] He Who created Samawat
(seven firmaments) and the Ardh (seven Ardhean) and all that (was)
between, in six days, and is firmly established on the Throne (of authority):
Allah, Most Gracious: ask thou, then, about Him of any acquainted (with such
things).
وَقَوْله
تَعَالَى : "
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ السَّمَوَات
وَالْأَرْض "
الْآيَة أَيْ
هُوَ الْحَيّ
الَّذِي لَا
يَمُوت
وَهُوَ
خَالِق كُلّ
شَيْء
وَرَبّه
وَمَلِيكه
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ بِقُدْرَتِهِ
وَسُلْطَانه
السَّمَوَات
السَّبْع فِي
اِرْتِفَاعهَا
وَاتِّسَاعهَا
وَالْأَرْضِينَ
السَّبْع فِي
سُفُولهَا
وَكَثَافَتهَا
" فِي سِتَّة
أَيَّام (ابن
كثير)
(اللَّهُ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
وَمَا
بَيْنَهُمَا
فِي سِتَّةِ أَيَّامٍ
ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
عَلَى
الْعَرْشِ مَا
لَكُمْ مِنْ
دُونِهِ مِنْ
وَلِيٍّ
وَلَا
شَفِيعٍ
أَفَلَا
تَتَذَكَّرُونَ) (السجدة
س32،
4).
(It is Allah Who has created Samawat (seven firmaments) and
the Ardh (seven Ardhean) and all that (was) between them, in six
Days, and is firmly established on the Throne (of authority); ye have none,
besides Him, to protect or intercede (for you): will ye not then receive
admonition?) (S. 32, V. 4)
(وَلَقَدْ
خَلَقْنَا
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
وَمَا
بَيْنَهُمَا
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ
وَمَا
مَسَّنَا
مِنْ لُغُوبٍ) (ق س 50 ، 38)
(We created the Samawat
(seven firmaments) and the Ardh (seven Ardhean) and all that (was)
between them in Six Days, nor did any sense of weariness touch Us.) (S. 50, V.
38)
وَقَالَ
قَتَادَة
قَالَتْ
الْيَهُود
خَلَقَ
اللَّه
السَّمَاوَات
وَالْأَرْض
فِي سِتَّة
أَيَّام
ثُمَّ اِسْتَرَاحَ
فِي الْيَوْم
السَّابِع
وَهُوَ يَوْم
السَّبْت
وَهُمْ
يُسَمُّونَهُ
يَوْم الرَّاحَة
فَأَنْزَلَ
اللَّه
تَعَالَى تَكْذِيبهمْ
فِيمَا
قَالُوهُ
وَتَأَوَّلُوهُ
" وَمَا
مَسَّنَا
مِنْ لُغُوب "
أَيْ مِنْ إِعْيَاء
وَلَا تَعَب
وَلَا نَصَب
كَمَا قَالَ
تَبَارَكَ وَتَعَالَى
فِي الْآيَة
الْأُخْرَى "
أَوَلَمْ
يَرَوْا
أَنَّ اللَّه
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَات
وَالْأَرْض
وَلَمْ
يَعْيَ بِخَلْقِهِنَّ
قَادِرٌ
عَلَى أَنْ
يُحْيِيَ الْمَوْتَى
بَلَى
إِنَّهُ
عَلَى كُلّ
شَيْء قَدِير
" وَكَمَا
قَالَ عَزَّ
وَجَلَّ " لَخَلْق
السَّمَاوَات
وَالْأَرْض
أَكْبَرُ
مِنْ خَلْق
النَّاس "
وَقَالَ
تَعَالَى "
أَأَنْتُمْ
أَشَدّ
خَلْقًا أَمْ
السَّمَاء
بَنَاهَا " .
(هُوَ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ
ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى
عَلَى
الْعَرْشِ
يَعْلَمُ مَا
يَلِجُ فِي
الْأَرْضِ وَمَا
يَخْرُجُ
مِنْهَا
وَمَا
يَنْزِلُ
مِنَ السَّمَاءِ
وَمَا
يَعْرُجُ
فِيهَا
وَهُوَ مَعَكُمْ
أَيْنَ مَا
كُنْتُمْ
وَاللَّهُ بِمَا
تَعْمَلُونَ
بَصِيرٌ) (الحديد س 57،
4)
(He it is Who created the Samawat (seven firmaments) and the
Ardh (seven Ardhean) in six Days, and is moreover firmly established on the
Throne (of authority), He knows what enters within the Ardh (all
meanings) and what comes forth out of it, what comes down from the Sama
(all meanings) and what mounts up to it. And He is with you wheresoever ye may
be. And Allah sees well all that ye do.) (S. 57, V. 4)
- (هُوَ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
لَكُمْ مَا
فِي الْأَرْضِ
جَمِيعًا
ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
إِلَى السَّمَاءِ
فَسَوَّاهُنَّ
سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
وَهُوَ
بِكُلِّ
شَيْءٍ
عَلِيمٌ)
سورة البقرة
آية رقم 29 .
(It is He Who hath created for you all things
that were coupled on Ardh (interior part of universe, or coupled
seven Ardhean); then He turned to the heaven and made them into seven
firmaments. And of all things He hath perfect knowledge.) (S. 1, V. 29)
- (وَجَعَلْنَا
السَّمَاءَ
سَقْفًا
مَحْفُوظًا
وَهُمْ عَنْ
آيَاتِهَا
مُعْرِضُونَ)
سورة الأنبياء
آية رقم 32 .
32] And We have made the Samaa (heavens, sky, firmament) as a
canopy well guarded: yet do they turn away from the Signs which these things
(point to)!) (S 21, V. 32)
- (يَوْمَ
نَطْوِي
السَّمَاءَ
كَطَيِّ
السِّجِلِّ
لِلْكُتُبِ
كَمَا بَدَأْنَا
أَوَّلَ
خَلْقٍ
نُعِيدُهُ
وَعْدًا عَلَيْنَا
إِنَّا
كُنَّا
فَاعِلِينَ)
سورة
الأنبياء آية
رقم 104.
(The Day that We roll up the Samaa (heavens, sky, firmament,
space) like a scroll rolled up for books (completed), even as We produced the
first Creation, so shall We produce a new one: a promise We have undertaken:
truly shall We fulfill it.) (S 21, V. 104)
- (فَقَضَاهُنَّ
سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
فِي يَوْمَيْنِ
وَأَوْحَى
فِي كُلِّ
سَمَاءٍ
أَمْرَهَا)
سورة فصلت آية
رقم 12.
(So He completed them as seven Samawat (firmaments, skies,
canopies) in two Days and He assigned to each Samaa its duty and command. And
We adorned the lower Samaa with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is
the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge.) (S 41, V.
12)
- (فَإِذَا
انشَقَّتْ
السَّمَاءُ
فَكَانَتْ وَرْدَةً
كَالدِّهَانِ)
سورة الرحمن
آية رقم 37 .
(When the Samaa (sky, firmament) is rent asunder, and it becomes
red like ointment:) (S. 55, V. 37)
- (هُوَ
الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ
فِي سِتَّةِ
أَيَّامٍ ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
عَلَى
الْعَرْشِ)
سورة الحديد
آية رقم 4 .
(He it is Who created the Samawat (firmaments, skies, canopies)
and the Ardh (Dark matter holding galaxies) in six Days, and is moreover firmly
established on the Throne (of authority), ) (S. 57, V. 4)
- (وَانشَقَّتْ
السَّمَاءُ
فَهِيَ
يَوْمَئِذٍ
وَاهِيَةٌ)
سورة الحاقة
آية رقم 16.
(And the Samaa (heavens, sky, firmament) will be rent asunder,
for it will that Day be flimsy, ) (S. 69, V. 16)
- (يَوْمَ
تَكُونُ
السَّمَاءُ
كَالْمُهْلِ)
سورة المعارج
آية رقم 8 .
(The Day that the Samaa (heavens, sky, firmament) will be like
molten brass) (S. 70, V. 8)
- (السَّمَاءُ
مُنْفَطِرٌ
بِهِ كَانَ
وَعْدُهُ
مَفْعُولًا)
سورة المزمل
آية رقم 18.
)Whereon the Samaa (heavens, sky,
firmament) will be cleft asunder? His Promise needs must be accomplished. ) (S. 73, V. 18)
- (وَإِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
فُرِجَتْ)
سورة
المرسلات آية
رقم 9 .
(When the heaven is cleft asunder; ) (S. 77, V. 9)
- (أَأَنْتُمْ
أَشَدُّ
خَلْقًا أَمْ
السَّمَاءُ
بَنَاهَا)
سورة
النازعات آية
رقم 27 .
)What! Are ye the more difficult to
create or the Samaa (heavens, sky, firmament) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed
it: ) (S. 79,
V. 27)
- (إِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
انفَطَرَتْ)
سورة
الانفطار آية
رقم 1 .
(When the Samaa (heavens, sky, firmament) is cleft asunder ) (S.
81, V. 1)
- (إِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
انشَقَّتْ)
سورة
الانشقاق آية
رقم 1 .
(When the Samaa (heavens, sky, firmament) is rent asunder, ) (S. 84, V. 1)
- (وَإِلَى
السَّمَاءِ
كَيْفَ
رُفِعَتْ)
سورة الغاشية
آية رقم 18 .
(And at the Samaa, how it is raised high?) (S. 88, V. 18)
- (الَّذِي
خَلَقَ
سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
طِبَاقًا مَا
تَرَى فِي
خَلْقِ
الرَّحْمَانِ
مِنْ تَفَاوُتٍ
فَارْجِعْ
الْبَصَرَ
هَلْ تَرَى
مِنْ فُطُورٍ) ] الملك 3 [. أي طبقة
بعد طبقة .... ([1]).
(He Who created the seven Samawat (skies, Firmaments) one above another: no want of
proportion wilt thou see in the Creation of (Allah) Most Gracious. So turn thy
vision again: seest thou any flaw? [4]
Again turn thy vision a second time: (thy) vision will come back to thee dull
and discomfited, in a state worn out.) (S. 67, V. 3)
- (وَبَنَيْنَا
فَوْقَكُمْ
سَبْعًا
شِدَادًا) ] 12 النبأ [.
يريد سبع
سماوات قويّة
الخلق مُحكمة
البناء،
ولهذا وصفها
بالشِّدَّة ([2]).
(And
(have We not) built over you the seven Firmaments) (S. 79, V. 12)
- (وَلَقَدْ
خَلَقْنَا
فَوْقَكُمْ
سَبْعَ طَرَائِقَ
وَمَا كُنَّا
عَنْ
الْخَلْقِ
غَافِلِينَ) ] 17
المؤمنون[ . والطّرائق
هي الطّبقات
بعضُها فوق
بعض أو وراء
بعض ([3]). ولمّا
كان البناءُ
خالياً من
الفطور والشُّقوق
فإنّهُ لا
بُدَّ بناءٌ
قويٌّ متماسك.
(And
We have made, above you, seven layers; and We are never unmindful of (Our)
Creation) (S 23, V. 17).
- (أَلَمْ
تَرَوْا
كَيْفَ
خَلَقَ
اللَّهُ سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
طِبَاقًا) ] 15 نوح[. أي واحدة
فوق واحدة ( [4]).
(See ye not how
Allah has created the seven Samawat (skies, Firmaments) one
above another,) (S. 71, V. 15).
Supernovae explosion is referred to by the Qur’anic verse:
“(And Anzalna
Al-Hadid (Iron), in which is Great might
as well as many benefits for mankind” (Al-Hadid (Iron) 57:25). The verse has a number
of implications: Iron accumulates in
cores of high mass old stars. The iron
core collapses to form a degenerate neutron star. Consequently, a shock wave moves through the
infalling stellar material and completely disrupts the star. The Verse also
directs attention to the fact that high energy is required to produce chemical
elements higher than iron; endothermic reaction. The verse also emphasizes the extraction of
iron from cores of massive old dieing stars.
Both processes require a high energy provided by the supernova
explosion. Finally, iron and other
elements are sent to form our solar system.
Iron A=56 and nearby elements have maximum binding energy per nucleon (Figure). Iron and nickel nuclei have the
largest binding energies per nucleon of all nuclei. The fusion of two nuclei with lower mass than
iron generally releases energy, while the fusion of nuclei heavier than iron
absorbs energy. Reactions producing elements having A = 57 are endothermic. This is implied by the number of the Surah;
57. The atomic number of iron; 26; exceeds the number of the Verse; 25; by one. This difference “one” might direct attention
to the process of inverse beta decay; which leads to the removal of the support
that had been provided to the inert core:
p → n + e+
+ νe . Inverse beta decay is one of the
steps in nuclear
fusion
processes that produce energy inside stars (Omari).
Cosmic Microwave Background
Estimated
distribution of dark matter and dark energy in the universe
The existence of dark
energy, in whatever form, is needed to reconcile the measured geometry of space
with the total amount of matter in the universe. Measurements of cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropies, most recently by the WMAP spacecraft, indicate that the universe is very close to flat. For the shape of the universe to be flat, the mass/energy density of the universe must be
equal to a certain critical density. The total amount of matter in the
universe (including baryons and dark matter), as measured by the CMB, accounts
for only about 30% of the critical density. This implies the existence of an
additional form of energy to account for the remaining 70%.[7] The most recent WMAP observations
are consistent with a universe made up of 74% dark energy, 22% dark matter, and
4% ordinary matter.[2]
"Furthermore I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not." (S. 69 V 38-39).
(Glory to
Allah, Who created in pairs all things that the earth produces, as well as their
own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. * And a Sign for them is
the Night: We withdraw therefrom the Day, and behold they are plunged in
darkness.) (S. 36, V. 36-37)
Large-Scale Structure
The theory of large scale structure, which governs the formation of
structure in the universe (stars, quasars, galaxies and galaxy clusters), also suggests that the density of baryonic matter in the
universe is only 30% of the critical density.
Late-time Integrated Sachs-Wolfe Effect
Accelerated cosmic
expansion causes gravitational
potential wells and hills to flatten as photons pass through them, producing cold
spots and hot spots on the CMB aligned with vast supervoids
and superclusters. This so-called late-time Integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect (ISW) is a direct signal of dark energy in
a flat universe,[9] and has recently been detected at
high significance by Ho et al.[10] and Giannantonio et al.[11]
That
Accelerated cosmic expansion causes gravitational
potential wells and hills to flatten is indicated by the verses:
(قُلْ
أَئِنَّكُمْ
لَتَكْفُرُونَ
بِالَّذِي
خَلَقَ
الْأَرْضَ
فِي
يَوْمَيْنِ
وَتَجْعَلُونَ
لَهُ
أَنْدَادًا
ذَلِكَ رَبُّ
الْعَالَمِينَ * وَجَعَلَ
فِيهَا
رَوَاسِيَ
مِنْ
فَوْقِهَا
وَبَارَكَ
فِيهَا
وَقَدَّرَ
فِيهَا أَقْوَاتَهَا
فِي
أَرْبَعَةِ
أَيَّامٍ
سَوَاءً
لِلسَّائِلِينَ * ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
إِلَى
السَّمَاءِ
وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ
فَقَالَ
لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ
ائْتِيَا
طَوْعًا أَوْ
كَرْهًا قَالَتَا
أَتَيْنَا
طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ
سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
فِي يَوْمَيْنِ
وَأَوْحَى
فِي كُلِّ
سَمَاءٍ
أَمْرَهَا
وَزَيَّنَّا
السَّمَاءَ
الدُّنْيَا بِمَصَابِيحَ
وَحِفْظًا
ذَلِكَ
تَقْدِيرُ
الْعَزِيزِ
الْعَلِيمِ) [فصلت 9-12].
[10] He set
on the (Ardh). Like Mountains standing firm, above it, and bestowed blessings
on the Ardh, and measured therein all things to give them nourishment in due
proportion, in precisely four Days (periods) for those who seek knowledge,
and also in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (sustenance).
- (وَالسَّمَاءَ
بَنَيْنَاهَا
بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا
لَمُوسِعُونَ
* وَالأرْضَ
فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ
الْمَاهِدُونَ) ]
48-47 الذّاريات[.
" We have built The Sama
- Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness of
Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out Ardh - Ground;
interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -:
How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 48).
Supervoids
are indicated by the verse:
(أَوَلَمْ
يَرَ
الَّذِينَ
كَفَرُوا
أَنَّ
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا
رَتْقًا
فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا)
[الأنبياء 30].
وأمّا الآن
فهنَّ بسط
وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون
السّبع).
"Do not the Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Sama:
upper part of universe) and the Ardh
(lower - interior - part of the Universe) were Ratq (joined, coupled),
before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).
Nature of dark energy
The exact nature of
this dark energy is a matter of speculation. It is known to be very homogeneous, not very dense and is not known to interact through
any of the fundamental
forces other
than gravity. Since it is not very dense —
roughly 10−29 grams per cubic centimeter — it is hard to
imagine experiments to detect it in the laboratory.
وَمَا
تَكُونُ فِي
شَأْنٍ وَمَا
تَتْلُو مِنْهُ
مِنْ قُرْآنٍ
وَلَا
تَعْمَلُونَ
مِنْ عَمَلٍ
إِلَّا
كُنَّا
عَلَيْكُمْ
شُهُودًا
إِذْ
تُفِيضُونَ
فِيهِ وَمَا
يَعْزُبُ
عَنْ رَبِّكَ
مِنْ
مِثْقَالِ
ذَرَّةٍ فِي
الْأَرْضِ
وَلَا فِي
السَّمَاءِ
وَلَا أَصْغَرَ
مِنْ ذَلِكَ
وَلَا
أَكْبَرَ
إِلَّا فِي
كِتَابٍ
مُبِينٍ)
(يونس 10 ، 61)
(In whatever business
thou mayest be, and whatever portion thou mayest be reciting from the Qur-an,
and whatever deed ye (mankind) may be doing, We are witnesses thereof when ye
are deeply engrossed therein. Nor is hidden from the Lord (so much as) the
weight of an atom on the Ardh or in
heaven. nor is there anything less than that, or
greater, but are recorded in
a clear Record.) (S. 10, V. 61)
وَقَالَ
الَّذِينَ
كَفَرُوا لَا
تَأْتِينَا
السَّاعَةُ
قُلْ بَلَى
وَرَبِّي
لَتَأْتِيَنَّكُمْ
عَالِمِ
الْغَيْبِ
لَا يَعْزُبُ
عَنْهُ
مِثْقَالُ
ذَرَّةٍ فِي
السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَلَا فِي
الْأَرْضِ
وَلَا
أَصْغَرُ
مِنْ ذَلِكَ
وَلَا
أَكْبَرُ
إِلَّا فِي كِتَابٍ
مُبِينٍ) (سبإ 34
، 3)
(The Unbelievers say, "Never to us will
come the Hour": say, "Nay! but most surely, by my Lord, it will come
upon you; - by Him Who knows the unseen - from Whom is not hidden the least
little atom in the Heavens or on Ardh: nor is there anything less than that, or
greater, but is in the Record Perspicuous)
(S. 34, V. 3).
Dark energy can only
have such a profound impact on the universe, making up 74% of universal
density, because it uniformly fills otherwise empty space. The two leading
models are quintessence and the cosmological constant. Both models include the common
characteristic that dark energy must have negative pressure.
" We
have built The Sama - Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power;
to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark
matter holding the galaxies -: How
excellently We do spread out * And of
everything We have created pairs: that ye
may receive instruction " (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 49).
Independently from
its actual nature, dark energy would need to have a strong negative pressure
(i.e. effects, acting repulsively) in order to explain the observed acceleration in the expansion rate of the universe.
According to General
Relativity, the pressure within a substance contributes to its gravitational
attraction for other things just as its mass density does. This happens because
the physical quantity that causes matter to generate gravitational effects is
the Stress-energy
tensor, which
contains both the energy (or matter) density of a substance and its pressure
and viscosity.
The Qur'an says about
the Hill fire:
(إِذَا
رَأَتْهُمْ
مِنْ مَكَانٍ
بَعِيدٍ سَمِعُوا
لَهَا
تَغَيُّظًا
وَزَفِيرًا)
(الفرقان س 25 ،
آية 12)
(When it sees them from a place far off, they will hear its
fury and its raging sigh.) (S 25, V. 12).
In the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric, it can be shown that a
strong constant negative pressure in all the universe causes an acceleration in
universe expansion if the universe is already expanding, or a deceleration in
universe contraction if the universe is already contracting. More exactly, the
second derivative of the universe scale factor, 
, is positive if the equation of state of the universe is such that 
.
This accelerating expansion effect is sometimes labeled "gravitational
repulsion", which is a colorful but possibly confusing expression. In fact
a negative pressure does not influence the gravitational interaction between
masses — which remains attractive — but rather alters the overall evolution of
the universe at the cosmological scale, typically resulting in the accelerating
expansion of the universe despite the attraction among the masses present in
the universe.
The so called dark energy,
or negative pressure is referred to by the verses:
(ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
إِلَى
السَّمَاءِ
وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ
فَقَالَ
لَهَا
وَلِلْأَرْضِ
ائْتِيَا
طَوْعًا أَوْ
كَرْهًا
قَالَتَا
أَتَيْنَا
طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ
سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
فِي يَوْمَيْنِ) [فصّلت
آية 11-12 ].
Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Sama (upper
part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to Ardh (lower -
interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye, willingly or
unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'. So He
completed them as seven firmaments in two Days (periods) …" (Surah 41, Verses
11-12).
- (وَالسَّمَاءَ
بَنَيْنَاهَا
بِأَيْيدٍ
وَإِنَّا
لَمُوسِعُونَ
* وَالأرْضَ
فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ
الْمَاهِدُونَ * وَمِنْ
كُلِّ شَيْءٍ
خَلَقْنَا
زَوْجَيْنِ
لَعَلَّكُمْ
تَذَكَّرُونَ) ]
49-47 الذّاريات[.
" We
have built The Sama - Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power;
to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark
matter holding the galaxies -: How
excellently We do spread out * And of
everything We have created pairs: that ye
may receive instruction " (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 49).
(أَأَنْتُمْ
أَشَدُّ
خَلْقًا أَمْ
السَّمَاءُ
بَنَاهَا *
رَفَعَ
سَمْكَهَا
فَسَوَّاهَا)
[النّازعات 27-28]
[27] What!
Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah)
hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given
it order and perfection.
Cosmological
constant
For more details on
this topic, see Equation of state (cosmology).
The simplest
explanation for dark energy is that it is simply the "cost of having
space": that is, a volume of space has some intrinsic, fundamental energy.
This is the cosmological constant, sometimes called Lambda (hence Lambda-CDM model) after the Greek letter Λ, the
symbol used to mathematically represent this quantity. Since energy and mass
are related by E = mc2, Einstein's theory of general
relativity
predicts that it will have a gravitational effect. It is sometimes called a vacuum energy because it is the energy density of
empty vacuum. In fact, most theories of particle physics predict vacuum
fluctuations
that would give the vacuum this sort of energy. This is related to the Casimir Effect, in which there is a small suction
into regions where virtual particles are geometrically inhibited from forming
(e.g. between plates with tiny separation). The cosmological constant is
estimated by cosmologists to be on the order of 10−29g/cm³, or
about 10−120 in reduced
Planck units.
However, particle physics predicts a natural value of
The cosmological
constant has negative pressure equal to its energy density and so causes the
expansion of the universe to accelerate. The reason why a cosmological constant has negative pressure can be
seen from classical thermodynamics; Energy must be lost from inside a container
to do work on the container. A change in volume dV requires work done
equal to a change of energy −p dV, where p is the
pressure. But the amount of energy in a box of vacuum energy actually increases
when the volume increases (dV is positive), because the energy is equal
to ρV, where ρ (rho) is the energy density of the
cosmological constant. Therefore, p is negative and, in fact, p = −ρ.
A major outstanding problem is that most quantum
field theories
predict a huge cosmological constant from the energy of the quantum vacuum, more than 100 orders
of magnitude
too large.[12] This would need to be cancelled
almost, but not exactly, by an equally large term of the opposite sign. Some supersymmetric theories require a cosmological
constant that is exactly zero, which does not help. The present scientific
consensus amounts to extrapolating the empirical evidence where it is relevant to
predictions, and fine-tuning theories until a more elegant
solution is found. Technically, this amounts to checking theories against
macroscopic observations. Unfortunately, as the known error-margin in the
constant predicts the fate
of the universe more than its present state, many such "deeper" questions
remain unknown.
Another problem arises
with inclusion of the cosmological constant in the standard model: i.e., the
appearance of solutions with regions of discontinuities (see classification of discontinuities for three examples) at low matter
density.[13] Discontinuity also affects the past
sign of the pressure assigned to the cosmological constant, changing from the
current negative pressure to attractive, as one looks back towards the early
Universe. A systematic, model-independent evaluation of the supernovae data
supporting inclusion of the cosmological constant in the standard model
indicates these data suffer systematic error. The supernovae data are not
overwhelming evidence for an accelerating Universe expansion which may be
simply gliding.[14] A numerical evaluation of WMAP and
supernovae data for evidence that our local group exists in a local void with
poor matter density compared to other locations, uncovered possible conflict in
the analysis used to support the cosmological constant.[15] These findings should be considered
shortcomings of the standard model, but only when a term for vacuum energy is
included.
In spite of its
problems, the cosmological constant is in many respects the most economical solution to the problem of cosmic
acceleration.
One number successfully explains a multitude of observations. Thus, the current
standard model of cosmology, the Lambda-CDM model, includes the cosmological
constant as an essential feature.
Quintessence
Main article: Quintessence (physics)
In quintessence models of dark energy, the observed acceleration of the scale factor is
caused by the potential energy of a dynamical field, referred to as quintessence field.
Quintessence differs from the cosmological constant in that it can vary in
space and time. In order for it not to clump and form structure like matter, the field must be very light so that it has a
large Compton
wavelength.
No evidence of
quintessence is yet available, but it has not been ruled out either. It
generally predicts a slightly slower acceleration of the expansion of the
universe than the cosmological constant. Some scientists think that the best
evidence for quintessence would come from violations of Einstein's equivalence principle and variation of the fundamental constants in space or time. Scalar fields are predicted by the standard model and string theory, but an analogous problem to the
cosmological constant problem (or the problem of constructing models of cosmic inflation) occurs: renormalization theory predicts that scalar fields
should acquire large masses.
The cosmic coincidence
problem asks
why the cosmic
acceleration
began when it did. If cosmic
acceleration
began earlier in the universe, structures such as galaxies would never have had time to form
and life, at least as we know it, would never have had a chance to exist.
Proponents of the anthropic
principle
view this as support for their arguments. However, many models of quintessence
have a so-called tracker behavior, which solves this problem. In these models,
the quintessence field has a density which closely tracks (but is less than)
the radiation density until matter-radiation equality, which triggers quintessence to
start behaving as dark energy, eventually dominating the universe. This
naturally sets the low energy scale of the dark energy.
In 2004, when
scientists fit the evolution of dark energy with the cosmological data, they
found that the equation of state had possibly crossed the cosmological constant
boundary (w=-1) from above to below. A No-Go theorem
has been proved that to give this scenario at least two degrees of freedom are
required for dark energy models. This scenario is so-called Quintom scenario.
Some special cases of
quintessence are phantom energy, in which the energy density of
quintessence actually increases with time, and k-essence (short for kinetic
quintessence) which has a non-standard form of kinetic energy. They can have unusual properties: phantom energy, for example, can cause a Big Rip.
The Big Rip: The
matter of the universe, from stars and galaxies to atoms
and subatomic particles, are progressively torn apart by the expansion of the universe at a certain time in the future. The hypothesis relies crucially on the type
of dark
energy in the
universe. The key value is the equation of state parameter w, the ratio between the dark energy pressure and
its energy
density. At w
< −1, the universe will eventually be pulled apart. The Big Rip is indicated by the verse:
- (السَّمَاءُ
مُنْفَطِرٌ
بِهِ كَانَ
وَعْدُهُ
مَفْعُولًا)
سورة المزمل
آية رقم 18.
"Whereon
the Sama (firmament, sky) will be cleft asunder? His Promise needs must be
accomplished" (S 73, V 18).
- (وَإِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
فُرِجَتْ)
سورة
المرسلات آية
رقم 9.
"When the Sama (firmament, sky) is cleft
asunder;" (S
77, V 9)
-
(وَإِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
كُشِطَتْ)
سورة التكوير
آية رقم 11.
(وَإِذَا
السَّمَاءُ كُشِطَتْ):
الْكَشْط :
قَلْع عَنْ
شِدَّة
اِلْتِزَاق ;
فَالسَّمَاء
تُكْشَط
كَمَا
يُكْشَط
الْجِلْد
عَنْ
الْكَبْش
وَغَيْره
وَالْقَشْط :
لُغَة فِيهِ .
وَفِي
قِرَاءَة
عَبْد اللَّه
" وَإِذَا
السَّمَاء
قُشِطَتْ "
وَكَشَطْت
الْبَعِير
كَشْطًا :
نَزَعْت
جِلْدَهُ
وَلَا يُقَال
سَلَخْته ;
لِأَنَّ
الْعَرَب لَا
تَقُول فِي
الْبَعِير
إِلَّا
كَشَطْته
أَوْ جَلَدْته
, وَانْكَشَطَ
: أَيْ ذَهَبَ ;
فَالسَّمَاء
تُنْزَع مِنْ
مَكَانهَا
كَمَا يُنْزَع
الْغِطَاء
عَنْ
الشَّيْء .
وَقِيلَ :
تُطْوَى
كَمَا قَالَ
تَعَالَى : "
يَوْم
نَطْوِي السَّمَاء
كَطَيِّ
السِّجِلّ
لِلْكُتُبِ " [
الْأَنْبِيَاء
: 104 ] فَكَأَنَّ
الْمَعْنَى :
قُلِعَتْ
فَطُوِيَتْ .
وَاَللَّه
أَعْلَم
(القرطبي).
"When the Sama (firmament, sky) gets
stripped and collapses onto itself)" (S 81, V 11)
- (إِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
انفَطَرَتْ)
سورة
الانفطار آية
رقم 1 .
"When the Sama (firmament, sky; .galaxies)
is cleft asunder" (S 82, V 1)
- (إِذَا
السَّمَاءُ
انشَقَّتْ)
سورة
الانشقاق آية
رقم 1.
"When the Sama (firmament, sky; ..) is
rent asunder" (S 84, V 1)
- (وَإِذَا
الْكَوَاكِبُ
انْتَثَرَتْ)
سورة
الانفطار آية
رقم 2 .
أَيْ
تَسَاقَطَتْ .
"When the planets are scattered" (S
82, V 2)
Implications for the fate of the universe
Cosmologists estimate
that the acceleration began roughly 5 billion years ago. Before that, it is thought that the
expansion was decelerating, due to the attractive influence of dark matter and baryons. The density of dark matter in an
expanding universe decreases more quickly than dark energy, and eventually the
dark energy dominates. Specifically, when the volume of the universe doubles,
the density of dark
matter is
halved but the density of dark energy is nearly unchanged (it is exactly
constant in the case of a cosmological constant).
If the acceleration
continues indefinitely, the ultimate result will be that galaxies outside the local
supercluster
will move beyond the cosmic horizon: they will no longer be visible,
because their line-of-sight
velocity
becomes greater than the speed of light.[19] This is not a violation of special
relativity,
and the effect cannot be used to send a signal between them. (Actually there is
no way to even define "relative speed" in a curved spacetime.
Relative speed and velocity can only be meaningfully defined in flat spacetime
or in sufficiently small (infinitesimal) regions of curved spacetime). Rather,
it prevents any communication between them as the objects pass out of contact.
The Earth, the Milky Way and the Virgo
supercluster,
however, would remain virtually undisturbed while the rest of the universe
recedes. In this scenario, the local supercluster would ultimately suffer heat death, just as was thought for the flat, matter-dominated universe, before
measurements of cosmic
acceleration.
There are some very
speculative ideas about the future of the universe. One suggests that phantom
energy causes divergent expansion, which would imply that the effective
force of dark energy continues growing until it dominates all other forces in
the universe. Under this scenario, dark energy would ultimately tear apart all
gravitationally bound structures, including galaxies and solar systems, and
eventually overcome the electrical and nuclear forces to tear apart atoms themselves,
ending the universe in a "Big Rip". On the other hand, dark
energy might dissipate with time, or even become attractive. Such uncertainties
leave open the possibility that gravity might yet rule the day and lead to a
universe that contracts in on itself in a "Big Crunch". Some scenarios, such as the cyclic model suggest this could be the case.
While these ideas are not supported by observations, they are not ruled out.
Measurements of acceleration are crucial to determining the ultimate fate of
the universe in big bang theory.
The Big Crunch is indicated by the verse:
(وَمَا
قَدَرُوا
اللَّهَ
حَقَّ
قَدْرِهِ وَالْأَرْضُ
جَمِيعًا
قَبْضَتُهُ
يَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ
وَالسَّمَاوَاتُ
مَطْوِيَّاتٌ
بِيَمِينِهِ
سُبْحَانَهُ
وَتَعَالَى
عَمَّا
يُشْرِكُونَ)
[الزمر 67]. الْأَرْضُ
هنا تعني
الأرضون
السّبع،
حيث ستعود يوم
القيامة مجموعة
ورتقاً.
"No
just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to Him: The Ardhean
(lower part of universe; mostly dark matter holding galaxies) will be coupled,
His handful on the Day of Judgment, and the heavens will be rolled up in His
right hand: Glory to Him! High is He above the Partners they attribute to Him!: (Al-Zumar 39:67). Also there are many Hadiths said by our
Prophet (Omari 2004).
The cyclic
model is probably indicated by the verse:
(يَوْمَ
تُبَدَّلُ
الْأَرْضُ غَيْرَ
الْأَرْضِ
وَالسَّمَاوَاتُ
وَبَرَزُوا
لِلَّهِ
الْوَاحِدِ
الْقَهَّارِ)
(إبراهيم س 14
، آية 48)
(One day the Ardh [seven Ardhean; distinct layers of dark matter holding
galaxies, Earth, . .] will be changed to a different Ardh, and so will
be the Samawat (seven firmaments, Heavens, skies),
and (men) will be marshalled forth, before Allah, the One, the Irresistible;)
(S 14, V. 48).
History
The cosmological
constant was first proposed by Einstein as a mechanism to obtain a stable
solution of the gravitational field equation that would lead to a static universe, effectively using
dark energy to balance gravity. Not only was the mechanism an inelegant example
of fine-tuning, it was soon realized that
Einstein's static universe would actually be unstable because local
inhomogeneities would ultimately lead to either the runaway expansion or
contraction of the universe. The equilibrium is unstable: if the universe expands
slightly, then the expansion releases vacuum energy, which causes yet more
expansion. Likewise, a universe which contracts slightly will continue
contracting. These sorts of disturbances are inevitable, due to the uneven
distribution of matter throughout the universe. More importantly, observations
made by Edwin
Hubble showed
that the universe appears to be expanding and not static at all. Einstein
famously referred to his failure to predict the idea of a dynamic universe, in
contrast to a static universe, as his greatest blunder. Following this
realization, the cosmological constant was largely ignored as a historical
curiosity.
Alan Guth proposed in the 1970s that a
negative pressure field, similar in concept to dark energy, could drive cosmic inflation in the very early universe.
Inflation postulates that some repulsive force, qualitatively similar to dark
energy, resulted in an enormous and exponential expansion of the universe
slightly after the Big Bang. Such expansion is an essential
feature of most current models of the Big Bang. However, inflation must have
occurred at a much higher energy density than the dark energy we observe today
and is thought to have completely ended when the universe was just a fraction
of a second old. It is unclear what relation, if any, exists between dark
energy and inflation. Even after inflationary models became accepted, the
cosmological constant was thought to be irrelevant to the current universe.
The Big Bang is referred to by the
verse:
(أَوَلَمْ
يَرَ
الَّذِينَ
كَفَرُوا
أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ
وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا
رَتْقًا
فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا)
[الأنبياء 30].
وأمّا الآن
فهنَّ بسط
وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون
السّبع).
"Do
not the Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Sama: upper part of
universe) and the Ardh
(lower - interior - part of the Universe) were Ratq (joined, coupled),
before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).
The Arabic word (Ratq),
implies that at early stages of Universe, matter used to have smeared and
continuous mass distribution with high density, and both matter and radiation
were coupled together. Later on, God
clove them asunder (Fatq): Implying that matter had started clumping and
holding together
to help forming seven distinct firmaments (Samawat) and seven interior levels
of Ardh (very likely to be seven distinct shells of dark matter). Also, later the universe became transparent,
and matter is no more coupled to radiation (Fatq). Consequently Sama (Upper part of
Universe) and Ardh (Interior part of Universe) are decoupled; each into
seven distinct and probably concentric spherical shells. The seven Ardhean (plural of Ardh: Ground)
mentioned by authentic hadiths (Prophet's sayings) are seven distinct
levels. It is possible that galaxies and
clusters of galaxies are distributed over Ardhean. As such, Ardhean represent a major
part of the cosmic dark matter that supports forming gravitationally bounded
galaxies and clusters ([i]).
The enormous expansion of
the universe slightly after the Big Bang (inflation) is referred
to by the verses:
(ثُمَّ
اسْتَوَى
إِلَى
السَّمَاءِ
وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ
فَقَالَ
لَهَا
وَلِلْأَرْضِ
ائْتِيَا
طَوْعًا أَوْ
كَرْهًا
قَالَتَا
أَتَيْنَا
طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ
سَبْعَ
سَمَاوَاتٍ
فِي يَوْمَيْنِ
وَأَوْحَى
فِي كُلِّ
سَمَاءٍ
أَمْرَهَا وَزَيَّنَّا
السَّمَاءَ
الدُّنْيَا
بِمَصَابِيحَ
وَحِفْظًا
ذَلِكَ
تَقْدِيرُ الْعَزِيزِ
الْعَلِيمِ) [فصّلت
آية 11-12 ]
Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Sama
(upper part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to Ardh
(lower - interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye, willingly or
unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'. So He completed
them as seven firmaments in two Days (periods) and He assigned to each
heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and
(provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might,
Full of Knowledge" (Surah 41, Verse 11-12).
At early stages, the Universe was hot and opaque as
indicated by the verse: "and it had been smoke".
(قَالَتَا
أَتَيْنَا
طَائِعِينَ)
: على الفور. (السَّمَاءِ
وَهِيَ
دُخَانٌ) تكوّنت
على الفور.
He completed them as seven
firmaments in two Days (periods): According to commentators, the day is
either 24 hours, or a thousand years.
Expanding:
- (وَالسَّمَاءَ
بَنَيْنَاهَا
بِأَيْيدٍ
وَإِنَّا
لَمُوسِعُونَ
* وَالأرْضَ
فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ
الْمَاهِدُونَ) ]
48-47 الذّاريات[.
" We
have built The Sama - Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power;
to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out Ardh
- Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the
galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse
47- 48).
لقد
أجمل الفخر
الرّازي
(الرّازي
، م 14، ص 228) معظم آراء
المفسِّرين في
الآية فقال : (وَإِنَّا
لَمُوسِعُونَ) فيه
وجوه.... وقال
بعض المفسّرين : (وَإِنَّا
لَمُوسِعُونَ) أي
بناءها
فالجملة حاليّة أي: بنيناها
بتوسيعها (الأندلسي
الغرناطي،
النهر الماد
من البحر إلى
المحيط. م 5،
ص 244 ؛ ابن
عطية الأندلسي،
ج 5، ص 181؛ أبي
العباس، ج 6، ص 192؛
الأندلسي
الغرناطي،
البحر المحيط.
ج 9، ص 560) .
وقيل خلقناها
بقوّة
وقدرة ونحن
قادرون على أن
نوسِّعها
كما نريد (السمرقندي
، ج 3، ص 280؛ الجوزي،
أبي الفرج ، ج 7، ص 212؛
الخطيب، م 14، ص 529-530).
وقيل أي رفعناها
بقوّة (الزمخشري،
م 4، ص 20؛ الرّازي،
م 14، ص 227).
And We indeed Have vast power and force; to build the Sama
(sky, firmaments, space) via expansion and to keep on its expansion.
(وَالأرْضَ
فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ
الْمَاهِدُونَ): وَالأرْضَ: تعني
الأرضين
السّبع (seven concentric spherical shells of cold dark matter)؛
الحاضن
الجاذبي
للمجرّات
(عمري 2004: الأرضون
السّبع).
"And We indeed Have vast power; to expand it". This interprets as: ALLAH constructs Sama
via expansion ([ii]). ALLAH create and elevate Sama with vast
force and power, and We (ALLAH) are able to expand it as We desire ([iii]). We are able to expand, as We expand its
construction ([iv]).
The so called negative
pressure; or dark energy is referred to by the verse:
- (وَالسَّمَاءَ
بَنَيْنَاهَا
بِأَيْيدٍ
وَإِنَّا
لَمُوسِعُونَ
* وَالأرْضَ
فَرَشْنَاهَا
فَنِعْمَ
الْمَاهِدُونَ * وَمِنْ
كُلِّ شَيْءٍ
خَلَقْنَا
زَوْجَيْنِ
لَعَلَّكُمْ
تَذَكَّرُونَ) ]
49-47 الذّاريات[.
" We have built The Sama - Firmament - with might, We indeed
Have vast power; to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out Ardh
- Ground;
interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do
spread out * And of everything We have created pairs: that ye may receive
instruction
" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 49).
Dark energy and energy
are an example of such pairs.
The term "dark
energy", echoing Fritz Zwicky's "dark matter" from the 1930s,
was coined by Michael Turner in 1998.[20] By that time, the missing mass
problem of big bang nucleosynthesis and large scale structure was established, and some
cosmologists had started to theorize that there was an additional component to
our universe. The first direct evidence for dark energy came from supernova
observations of accelerated expansion, in Riess et al.[5] and later confirmed in Perlmutter et al.[6] This resulted in the Lambda-CDM model, which as of 2006 is consistent with
a series of increasingly rigorous cosmological observations, the latest being the
2005 Supernova Legacy Survey. First results from the SNLS reveal that the
average behavior (i.e., equation of state) of dark energy behaves like
Einstein's cosmological constant to a precision of 10%.[21] Recent results from the Hubble Space
Telescope Higher-Z Team indicate that dark energy has been present for at least
9 billion years and during the period preceding cosmic acceleration.
To English
To Arabic-English
To Arabic
References
1. ^ P. J. E. Peebles and Bharat Ratra (2003). "The cosmological constant and dark energy" (subscription required). Reviews
of Modern Physics 75: 559–606. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559. http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0207347.
2.
^ a b Hinshaw, Gary F. (April 30th, 2008).
"WMAP Cosmological Parameters
Model: lcdm+sz+lens Data: wmap5". NASA. http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/map/current/params/lcdm_sz_lens_wmap5.cfm. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
3. ^ Sean Carroll (2001). "The cosmological constant". Living Reviews in Relativity
4: 1. doi:10.1038/nphys815-<span
(inactive 2008-06-26). http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2001-1/index.html. Retrieved 2006-09-28.
4. ^ L.Baum and P.H. Frampton (2007). "Turnaround in Cyclic Cosmology" (subscription required). Physical
Review Letters 98: 071301. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.071301. http://www.arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0610213.
5. ^ a b Adam G. Riess et al. (Supernova
Search Team) (1998).
"Observational evidence from
supernovae for an accelerating universe and a cosmological constant" (subscription required). Astronomical
J. 116: 1009–38. doi:10.1086/300499. http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9805201.
6. ^ a b S. Perlmutter et al. (The Supernova Cosmology Project) (1999). "Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 high redshift
supernovae"
(subscription required). Astrophysical J. 517: 565–86. doi:10.1086/307221. http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9812133.
7. ^ a b D. N. Spergel et al. (WMAP
collaboration) (March 2006). Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) three year results: implications for cosmology. http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/map/current/map_bibliography.cfm.
8. ^ Kowalski, Marek; Rubin, David (October 27th, 2008).
"Improved Cosmological Constraints from New, Old and Combined Supernova
Datasets". The Astrophysical Journal (Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press) 686: 749–778. doi:10.1086/589937. arXiv:0804.4142v1.
They find a best fit value of the dark
energy density,
ΩΛ of 0.713+0.027-0.029(stat)+0.036-0.039(sys), of the total
matter density,
ΩM, of 0.274+0.016-0.016(stat)+0.013-0.012(sys) with an equation of state parameter w of -0.969+0.059-0.063(stat)+0.063-0.066(sys).
9. ^ "Looking for Lambda with the
Rees-Sciama Effect", Crittenden R.G., & Turok N., 1996, Phys. Rev. Lett., 76, 575
10.
^ "Correlation of CMB with
large-scale structure: I. ISW Tomography and Cosmological Implications", Ho et al., 2008, Phys Rev. D, in
press
11.
^ "Combined analysis of the
integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect and cosmological implications", Giannantonio et al., 2008, Phys.
Rev. D, in press
12.
^ a b c Hogan, Jenny (2007). "Unseen
Universe: Welcome to the dark side". Nature 448 (7151): 240–245. doi:10.1038/448240a.
13.
^ A.M. Öztas and M.L. Smith (2006). "Elliptical
Solutions to the Standard Cosmology Model with Realistic Values of Matter
Density". International Journal of Theoretical Physics 45: 925–936.
doi:10.1007/s10773-006-9082-7.
14.
^ D.J. Schwarz and B. Weinhorst (2007).
"(An)isotropy of the Hubble diagram: comparing hemispheres". Astronomy
& Astrophysics 474: 717–729. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077998.
15.
^ Stephon Alexander, Tirthabir Biswas, Alessio Notari,
and Deepak Vaid (2008). "Local Void vs Dark Energy: Confrontation with
WMAP and Type Ia Supernovae". ArΧiv ePrint. arXiv:astro-ph/0712.0370v2.
16.
^ Wiltshire, David L. (2007). "Exact Solution to
the Averaging Problem in Cosmology". Phys. Rev. Lett. 99: 251101. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.251101.
17.
^ [1] arXiv:0708.2943v1 Dark energy as a mirage HIP-2007-64/TH
18.
^ Clifton, Timothy; Pedro Ferreira (April 2009). "Does Dark Energy Really
Exist?". Scientific
American 300 (4): 48–55. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=does-dark-energy-exist. Retrieved April 30, 2009.
19.
^ http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=the-end-of-cosmology
20.
^ The first appearance of the term "dark
energy" is in the article with another cosmologist and Turner's student at
the time, Dragan Huterer, "Prospects for Probing the Dark Energy via
Supernova Distance Measurements", which was posted to the ArXiv.org e-print archive in August 1998 and published in Physical Review D
in 1999 (Huterer and Turner, Phys. Rev. D 60, 081301 (1999)), although the
manner in which the term is treated there suggests it was already in general
use. Cosmologist Saul Perlmutter has credited Turner with coining the term in an article they wrote together with Martin
White of the University of Illinois for Physical Review Letters, where it is introduced in quotation marks as if it
were a neologism.
21.
^ Pierre Astier et al. (Supernova
Legacy Survey)
(2006). "The Supernova legacy survey:
Measurement of omega(m), omega(lambda) and W from the first year data set" (subscription required). Astronomy
and Astrophysics 447: 31–48. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20054185. http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0510447.
Bibliography
·
HubbleSite press release: New Clues About the Nature of Dark
Energy: Einstein May Have Been Right After All.
·
1998 paper announcing the dark energy discovery: Riess et al.
·
1999 paper confirming dark energy discovery Perlmutter et al..
·
The group that first detected cosmic
acceleration: High-Z supernova search team and the group that confirmed it Supernova
Cosmology Project.
·
Sean Carroll's technical reviews: Why is the universe accelerating?, The Cosmological Constant, and Dark Energy and the Preposterous Universe.
·
Jim Peebles, Testing General Relativity on the Scales of Cosmology.
·
"The World's Most Successful Nearby Supernova
Search Engine", The Katzman Automatic Imaging
Telescope.
·
Supernova
Acceleration Probe (SNAP), a proposed satellite experiment.
·
A reanalysis ([2],
[3]) of an experiment [R.H. Koch, D. van Harlingen, J. Clarke,
Phys. Rev. B 26 (1982) 74] to find the broad-band spectrum of Josephson
junction noise
current claims to connect it to the spectral frequency upper limit predicted by
matching estimates of the dark energy density to the measured vacuum energy
density. This claim is not yet accepted. For disputes, see [4],
[5], [6].
·
Christopher J. Conselice, "The Universe's
Invisible Hand," Scientific American. February, 2007.
External links
·
Robert R Caldwell (May 2004). "Dark energy". Physics World. http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/5/7. *Bad Link - 3/23/09 @ 1:00a EST*
·
Dennis Overbye (November 2006). "9 Billion-Year-Old 'Dark
Energy' Reported". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/17/science/space/17dark.html?em&ex=1163998800&en=f02de71136ca5dd5&ei=5087%0A.
·
"Mysterious force's long
presence" BBC News
online (2006) More evidence for dark energy being the cosmological constant
·
"Astronomy Picture of the Day" one of the images of the Cosmic Microwave Background which confirmed the presence of dark energy and dark matter
·
SuperNova Legacy Survey home page The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Legacy
Survey Supernova Program aims primarily at measuring the equation of state of
Dark Energy. It is designed to precisely measure several hundred high-redshift
supernovae.
·
"Report of the Dark Energy Task Force"
·
"Dark energy" BBC Science & Nature (2006)
·
"Dark energy in the accelerating universe" Supernova Acceleration Probe (SNAP)
Satellite Observatory home page.
·
Emille Ishida. "When did cosmic acceleration start". Astroparticle physics. http://arxiv.org/abs/0706.0546v5.
·
"Calculation of the Cosmological Constant by Unifying
Matter and Dark Energy" A geometric model of dark energy as Poincaré
sphere - calculated:
ΩD
= 0.734, observed: ΩD =
0.65...0.85 (see also blog).
·
"HubbleSite.org -- Dark Energy
Website"
Multimedia presentation explores the science of dark energy and Hubble's role
in its discovery.
·
"Dark energy and 3-manifold
topology" Acta
Physica Polonica 38 (2007), p. 3633-3639
·
The Information Equation of State
·
The Joint Dark Energy Mission
·
"Dark Energy Found Stifling Growth in Universe". Newswise. December 2008. http://newswise.com/articles/view/547483., is a secondary source (with extra animations) for,
·
Harvard: Dark Energy Found Stifling
Growth in Universe, primary
source