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Big Bang Linked to Some Verses From Qur-an

أ. د. حسين يوسف راشد عمري

rashed@mutah.edu.jo

قسم الفيزياء/ جامعة مؤتة/ الأردن

Abstract

Some Qur'anic verses and their interpretation is incorporated into this topic, which is taken primarily from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang#Overview).

According to the Big Bang model, the Universe expanded from an extremely dense and hot state and continues to expand today:

Dense and Hot:

وتؤكّد الآيات والأحاديث أنَّ السّموات والأرض كانتا رتقاً عند بداية الخلق (أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. وأمّا الآن فهنَّ بسط وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

"Do not the Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Samaa: upper part of universe) and the Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe) were Ratq (joined, coupled), before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).

The Arabic word (Ratq), implies that at early stages of Universe, matter used to have smeared and continuous mass distribution with high density, and both matter and radiation were coupled together. Later on, God clove them asunder (Fatq): Implying that matter had started clumping and holding together to help forming seven distinct firmaments (Samawat) and seven interior levels of Ardh (very likely to be seven distinct shells of dark matter). Also, later the universe became transparent, and matter is no more coupled to radiation (Fatq). Consequently Samaa (Upper part of Universe) and Ardh (Interior part of Universe) are decoupled; each into seven distinct and probably concentric spherical shells. The seven Ardhean (plural of Ardh: Ground) mentioned by authentic hadiths (Prophet's sayings) are seven distinct levels. It is possible that galaxies and clusters of galaxies are distributed over Ardhean. As such, Ardhean represent a major part of the cosmic dark matter that supports forming gravitationally bounded galaxies and clusters ([i]).

Hot:

(ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلأرْضِ اِئْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ) [فصّلت آية 11 ].

(قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ) : على الفور. (السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ) تكوّنت على الفور.

Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Samaa (upper part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye, willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'." (Surah 41, Verse 11).

At early stages, the Universe was hot and opaque as indicated by the verse: "and it had been smoke".

Expanding:

- (وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ _* وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) ] 48-47 الذّاريات[.

" We have built The Samaa - Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness of Space and continue to expand it * And We have spread out Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 48).

لقد أجمل الفخر الرّازي (الرّازي ، م 14، ص 228) معظم آراء المفسِّرين في الآية فقال : (وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ) فيه وجوه.... وقال بعض المفسّرين : (وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ) أي بناءها فالجملة حاليّة أي: بنيناها بتوسيعها (الأندلسي الغرناطي، النهر الماد من البحر إلى المحيط. م 5، ص 244 ؛ ابن عطية الأندلسي، ج 5، ص 181؛ أبي العباس، ج 6، ص 192؛ الأندلسي الغرناطي، البحر المحيط. ج 9، ص 560) . وقيل خلقناها بقوّة وقدرة ونحن قادرون على أن نوسِّعها كما نريد (السمرقندي ، ج 3، ص 280؛ الجوزي، أبي الفرج ، ج 7، ص 212؛ الخطيب، م 14، ص 529-530). وقيل أي رفعناها بقوّة (الزمخشري، م 4، ص 20؛ الرّازي، م 14، ص 227).

And We indeed Have vast power and force; to build the Samaa (sky, firmaments, space) via expansion and to keep on its expansion.

(وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ): وَالأرْضَ: تعني الأرضين السّبع (seven concentric spherical shells of cold dark matter)؛ الحاضن الجاذبي للمجرّات (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

"And We indeed Have vast power; to expand it". This interprets as: ALLAH constructs Samaa via expansion ([ii]). ALLAH create and elevate Samaa with vast force and power, and We (ALLAH) are able to expand it as We desire ([iii]). We are able to expand, as We expand its construction ([iv]).

A common analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread. The graphic scheme above is an artist's concept illustrating the expansion of a portion of a flat Universe.

The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the initial conditions and subsequent development of the Universe that is supported by the most comprehensive and accurate explanations from current scientific evidence and observation.^[1]^[2] As used by cosmologists, the term Big Bang generally refers to the idea that the Universe has expanded from a primordial hot and dense initial condition at some finite time in the past (best available measurements in 2009 suggest that the initial conditions occurred around 13.3 to 13.9 billion years ago^[3]^[4]), and continues to expand to this day:

Primordial Dense Initial Condition:

(هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ لَكُمْ مَا فِي الْأَرْضِ جَمِيعًا ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ فَسَوَّاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ وَهُوَ بِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ عَلِيمٌ) (البقرة 29).

One of the indications of Ardh is seven Ardhean (plural of Ardh: The interior; or lower; part of the Universe) (Omari, 2004; Omari, 2004): "He it is Who created for you all that is in coupled Ardhean. Then He Istawâ towards the Samaa (highness) and give order and perfection to the seven Samawat (plural of Samaa: canopy) and He is the All-Knower of everything" (Al-Baqarah 2:29).

Continues to expand to this Day:

Georges Lemaître proposed what became known as the Big Bang theory of the origin of the Universe, although he called it his "hypothesis of the primeval atom". The framework for the model relies on Albert Einstein's general relativity and on simplifying assumptions (such as homogeneity and isotropy of space):

(الَّذِي خَلَقَ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ طِبَاقًا مَا تَرَى فِي خَلْقِ الرَّحْمَانِ مِنْ تَفَاوُتٍ فَارْجِعْ الْبَصَرَ هَلْ تَرَى مِنْ فُطُورٍ _* ثُمَّ ارْجِعْ الْبَصَرَ كَرَّتَيْنِ يَنقَلِبْ إِلَيْكَ الْبَصَرُ خَاسِئًا وَهُوَ حَسِيرٌ) [ الملك 3-4].

[3] He Who created the seven Samawat (sky, Firmament) one above another: no want of proportion wilt thou see in the Creation of (Allah) Most Gracious. So turn thy vision again: seest thou any flaw? [4] Again turn thy vision a second time: (thy) vision will come back to thee dull and discomfited, in a state worn out.

إنّ غياب التفاوت والفطور وتمام التسوية جعلت من بناء السّماء جرماً هائلاً ضخماً، أملساً، مصقولاً ، ومتجانساً (Homogeneous)، ومتماثل المناحي الاتّجاهيّة (Isotropic). وبالتالي فلعلّ بناء السّماء ( شكل) هو مصدر إشعاع الخلفيّة الكوني الميكرويّ (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation) (شكل ، شكل ، شكل) الذي يمتلك في جميع المناحي والاتّجاهات درجة الحرارة (Mather et al. 1999, ApJ, 512, 511):

Among the miraculous aspects of this verse is that its number is 3, and it has a total of 18 words, and the order of the Arabic word (Tafawote: flaw, imperfection) is 12. Calculation based on words gives

ولو حسبنا الحروف لحصلنا على الرقم:

This number is almost the same as the temperature of the CMBR.

The governing equations had been formulated by Alexander Friedmann. After Edwin Hubble discovered in 1929 that the distances to far away galaxies were generally proportional to their redshifts, as suggested by Lemaître in 1927, this observation was taken to indicate that all very distant galaxies and clusters have an apparent velocity directly away from our vantage point: the farther away, the higher the apparent velocity.^[5]

وفيما يخصّ القيمة العدديّة الحالية لثابت هابل، فهنالك مدرستان:

جزء من العلماء يرجّح أنّ أفضل قيمة هي

وهذا الرقم قريب جدا من رقم آية القسم بمواقع النجوم: ]فَلا أُقْسِمُ بِمَوَاقِعِ النُّجُومِ * وَإِنَّهُ لَقَسَمٌ لَوْ تَعْلَمُونَ عَظِيمٌ * إنّهُ لقُرآنُُ كريمُُ[ (الواقعة الآيات 75-77).

Locations and settings of the stars: God says: [Furthermore I swear by The locations of the Stars,- And that is indeed A mighty adjuration If ye but knew,- That is indeed A Qur-an most honourable] (Surah. 56 verses. 75-77).

وفريق من العلماء يرى أنّ أفضل قيمة هي

وبالتالي، فإنّ من إعجاز آية القسم بمواقع النجوم أنّ القيمة العدديّة لثابت هابل إمّا أن تكون مساوية لرقم الآية (75) ، أو أنّها مساوية لرقم السورة (56) التي وردت فيها آية القسم بمواقع النجوم.

I swear by The locations of the Stars: The word locations (positions) of the Stars comes approximately in the middle of this verse; whose number is 75. Thus, 74 + 0.5 = 74.5 is equal to the most recent observational determination of of H₀ = 74.2. This is one of the miraculous aspects of this Qur'anic verse.

locations (positions) of the Stars is mentioned by this Surah; whose number (56). This surah has a total of 96 verses. Thus, 55 + (75/96) = 55.78. This numbers is extremely close to this alternative value of H₀ = 55. This is also another miraculous aspect of this Qur'anic verse.

A Hubble Space Telescope observation has refined the measurement of the universe's present expansion rate to a precision where the error is smaller than five percent. The new value for the expansion rate, known as the Hubble constant, or H₀ (after Edwin Hubble who first measured the expansion of the universe nearly a century ago), is 74.2 kilometers per second per megaparsec (error margin of ± 3.6) (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2009/08/full/)). Among the miraculous aspects of this verse is that its number (75) is almost equal this best measured value of the Hubble constant; H₀ = 74.2 (± 3.6). However, there is an argumentsforaHubbleConstantnear H₀ = 55 kms^-1 Mpc^-1 (Arp 2002). Among the miraculous aspects of this verse is that the number of its Surah (chapter), 56, is almost equal this alternative value of the Hubble constant; H₀ = 55.

If the distance between galaxy clusters is increasing today, everything must have been closer together in the past:

وتؤكّد الآيات والأحاديث أنَّ السّموات والأرض كانتا رتقاً عند بداية الخلق: (أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

الأرض هنا تعني الأرضين السّبع مجموعة ورتقاً، وهي تمثّل الجزء السفلي من الكون في بداية خلقه. ويؤكده الزّمخشري: "فإن قلت: هل لقول من زعم أنّ المعنى خلق لكم الأرض وما فيها وجه صحّة؟ قلت: أنّ أراد بالأرض الجهات السّفليّة دون الغبراء (الكرة الأرضيّة) كما تذكر السّماء وتراد الجهات العلويّة جاز ذلك، فإنّ الغبراء وما فيها واقعة في الجهات السّفليّة (الزمخشري م 1، ص 270.)". وهو عين ما قاله كثيرٌ من أئمّة التّفسير:(النيسابوري، ج 1، ص 210. ؛ العمادي، أبي السعود ، ج 1 ، ص 78.؛ البيضاوي، ج 1، ص 273.؛ عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع)

This idea has been considered in detail back in time to extreme densities and temperatures,^[6]^[7]^[8]

Hot:

(ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلأرْضِ اِئْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ) [فصّلت آية 11 ]

Large particle accelerators have been built to experiment on and test such conditions, resulting in significant confirmation of the theory, but these accelerators have limited capabilities to probe into such high energy regimes. Without any evidence associated with the earliest instant of the expansion, the Big Bang theory cannot and does not provide any explanation for such an initial condition; rather, it describes and explains the general evolution of the Universe since that instant:

(مَا أَشْهَدْتُهُمْ خَلْقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَلَا خَلْقَ أَنْفُسِهِمْ وَمَا كُنْتُ مُتَّخِذَ الْمُضِلِّينَ عَضُدًا) (الكهف 51)

[51] I called them not to witness the creation of the Samawat (heavens, sky) and the Ardh , nor (even) their own creation: nor is it for Me to take as helpers such as lead (men) astray!

The observed abundances of the light elements throughout the cosmos closely match the calculated predictions for the formation of these elements from nuclear processes in the rapidly expanding and cooling first minutes of the Universe, as logically and quantitatively detailed according to Big Bang nucleosynthesis.

Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term Big Bang during a 1949 radio broadcast. It is popularly reported that Hoyle, who favored an alternative "steady state" cosmological model, intended this to be pejorative, but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models.^[9]^[10]^[11] Hoyle later helped considerably in the effort to understand stellar nucleosynthesis, the nuclear pathway for building certain heavier elements from lighter ones. After the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, and especially when its spectrum (i.e., the amount of radiation measured at each wavelength) sketched out a blackbody curve, most scientists were fairly convinced by the evidence that some Big Bang scenario must have occurred.

Motivation and development

The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the Universe and from theoretical considerations:

(سَنُرِيهِمْ آيَاتِنَا فِي الْآفَاقِ وَفِي أَنْفُسِهِمْ حَتَّى يَتَبَيَّنَ لَهُمْ أَنَّهُ الْحَقُّ أَوَلَمْ يَكْفِ بِرَبِّكَ أَنَّهُ عَلَى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ شَهِيدٌ) (فصلت 53).

In 1912 Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a "spiral nebula" (spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies), and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth:

(أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا _* رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا فَسَوَّاهَا) [النّازعات 27-28]

[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.

He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact, and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were "island universes" outside our Milky Way.^[12]^[13] Ten years later, Alexander Friedmann, a Russian cosmologist and mathematician, derived the Friedmann equations from Albert Einstein's equations of general relativity, showing that the Universe might be expanding in contrast to the static Universe model advocated by Einstein at that time.^[14] In 1924, Edwin Hubble's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies. Independently deriving Friedmann's equations in 1927, Georges Lemaître, a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest, proposed that the inferred recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the Universe.^[15]

In 1931 Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion in forward time required that the Universe contracted backwards in time, and would continue to do so until it could contract no further, bringing all the mass of the Universe into a single point, a "primeval atom" where and when the fabric of time and space comes into existence.^[16]

وتؤكّد الآيات والأحاديث أنَّ السّموات والأرض كانتا رتقاً عند بداية الخلق (أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

"He it is Who created for you all that is in coupled Ardhean. Then He Istawâ towards the Samaa (highness) and give order and perfection to the seven Samawat (plural of Samaa: canopy) and He is the All-Knower of everything" (Al-Baqarah 2:29).

Starting in 1924, Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators, the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder, using the 100-inch (2,500 mm) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured, mostly by Slipher. In 1929, Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recession velocity—now known as Hubble's law.^[5]^[17] Lemaître had already shown that this was expected, given the Cosmological Principle.^[18]

]فَلا أُقْسِمُ بِمَوَاقِعِ النُّجُومِ * وَإِنَّهُ لَقَسَمٌ لَوْ تَعْلَمُونَ عَظِيمٌ * إنّهُ لقُرآنُُ كريمُُ[ (الواقعة الآيات 75-77). ومن إعجاز آية القسم بمواقع النجوم (هذه الآية) أنّ القيمة العدديّة لثابت هابل إمّا أن تكون مساوية لرقم الآية (75) ، أو أنّها مساوية لرقم السورة (56).

[Furthermore I swear by The locations of the Stars,- And that is indeed A mighty adjuration If ye but knew,- That is indeed A Qur-an most honourable] (Surah. 56 verses. 75-77).

Among the miraculous aspects of this verse (where GOD swears by locations of stars) is that its number (75) is almost equal this best measured value of the Hubble constant; H₀ = 74.2 (± 3.6). However, there is an argumentsforaHubbleConstantnear H₀ = 558 kms^-1 Mpc^-1 (Arp 2002). Among the miraculous aspects of this verse is that the number of its Surah (chapter), 56, is almost equal this alternative value of the Hubble constant; H₀ = 55.

During the 1930s other ideas were proposed as non-standard cosmologies to explain Hubble's observations, including the Milne model,^[19] the oscillatory Universe (originally suggested by Friedmann, but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard Tolman)^[20] and Fritz Zwicky's tired light hypothesis.^[21]

After World War II, two distinct possibilities emerged. One was Fred Hoyle's steady state model, whereby new matter would be created as the Universe seemed to expand. In this model, the Universe is roughly the same at any point in time.^[22] The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow, who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN)^[23] and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB).^[24] Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it as "this big bang idea" during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949.^[25]^{[notes 1]} For a while, support was split between these two theories. Eventually, the observational evidence, most notably from radio source counts, began to favor the latter. The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964^[26] secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos.

ومن إعجاز هذه الآية الكريمة أنّ رقمها 3، وعدد كلماتها 18 وترتيب كلمة تفاوت في هذه الآية هو 12. وبحساب الكلمات:

Among the miraculous aspects of this verse is that its number is 3, and it has a total of 18 words, and the order of the word (Tafawote: flaw) is 12. Calculation based on words gives

ولو حسبنا الحروف لحصلنا على الرقم:

This number is almost the same as the temperature of the CMBR.

وبالتالي فإنّ هذا نوع من الإعجاز العلمي والإعجاز العددي؛ إذ تشير الآية وبأكثر من وجه إلى التغاير الطفيف في درجة حرارة إشعاع الخلفية الكوني، والذي يعكس تسوية البناء السماوي.

ويمتاز الجسم الأسود بأنه باعث جيد للإشعاع (good emitter)، وهذا بعض مما تتضمنه الآية الكريمة: (وَالسَّمَاءِ ذَاتِ الرَّجْعِ) (الطارق آية 11) ، على اعتبار أنّ السّماء هنا هي البناء.

The blackbody is characterized by being a good emitter, which is likely to be among things indicated by the following verse:

(By the Firmament which returns ), (Surah 86, verse 11)

Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding the physics of the Universe at earlier and earlier times, and reconciling observations with the basic theory.

Huge strides in Big Bang cosmology have been made since the late 1990s as a result of major advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of copious data from satellites such as COBE,^[27] the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP.^[28] Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model, and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the Universe appears to be accelerating.

Overview

Timeline of the Big Bang

Extrapolation of the expansion of the Universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past.^[29] This singularity signals the breakdown of general relativity. How closely we can extrapolate towards the singularity is debated—certainly not earlier than the Planck epoch.

[51] I called them not to witness the creation of the heavens and the earth, nor (even) their own creation: nor is it for Me to take as helpers such as lead (men) astray!

The early hot, dense phase is itself referred to as "the Big Bang",^{[notes 2]} and is considered the "birth" of our Universe.

Hot

(قُلْ أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَكْفُرُونَ بِالَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَرْضَ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ وَتَجْعَلُونَ لَهُ أَنْدَادًا ذَلِكَ رَبُّ الْعَالَمِينَ * وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا وَبَارَكَ فِيهَا وَقَدَّرَ فِيهَا أَقْوَاتَهَا فِي أَرْبَعَةِ أَيَّامٍ سَوَاءً لِلسَّائِلِينَ * ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ وَأَوْحَى فِي كُلِّ سَمَاءٍ أَمْرَهَا وَزَيَّنَّا السَّمَاءَ الدُّنْيَا بِمَصَابِيحَ وَحِفْظًا ذَلِكَ تَقْدِيرُ الْعَزِيزِ الْعَلِيمِ) [فصلت 9-12].

ويرى العمري (خلق الكون : 2004) أنّ قوله سبحانه (وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا وَبَارَكَ فِيهَا) قد يشير إلى إحداث عدم تجانس في مادّة الأرضين والّتي هي مادّة مظلمة (Dark matter) أو لربّما هو إشارة إلى بداية خلق مادّة عاديّة بدأت تتشكّل وتتكوّن وترسو في الجزء العلوي من الأرض (الأرض بمعنى جهة السّفل من الكون). أي المادّة الّتي بدأت تتشكّل في أعالي الأرضين السّبع (شكل 2) ؛ أي في الأماكن الأقرب إلى الحيّز الداخلي للبناء السّماوي الأوّل (العمري، 2004 : الأرضون السّبع؛ العمري، بناء السّماء والمادّة المظلمة الباردة : 2002؛ Padmanabhan 1998). وهذه المادّة هي أساس البناء في الأرض العليا بعد فتق الأرضين (العمري، 2004 : الأرضون السّبع). وربّما تجسّد هذا حاليّا كتغاير طفيف في درجة حرارة إشعاع الخلفيّة الكوني (شكل). ويراد بالأرض العليا (الأولى) تلك الّتي تحتضن مجرّة درب التّبانة (شكل 2)؛ الّتي توجد فيها مجموعتنا الشّمسيّة (العمري، 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

(سَوَاءً لِلسَّائِلِينَ):

قَالَ الْحَسَن : الْمَعْنَى فِي أَرْبَعَة أَيَّام مُسْتَوِيَة تَامَّة . الْفَرَّاء : فِي الْكَلَام تَقْدِيم وَتَأْخِير , وَالْمَعْنَى : وَقَدَّرَ فِيهَا أَقْوَاتهَا سَوَاء لِلْمُحْتَاجِينَ . وَاخْتَارَهُ الطَّبَرِيّ . وَقَرَأَ الْحَسَن , الْبَصْرِيّ وَيَعْقُوب الْحَضْرَمِيّ " سَوَاء لِلسَّائِلِينَ " بِالْجَرِّ وَعَنْ اِبْن الْقَعْقَاع " سَوَاء " بِالرَّفْعِ ; فَالنَّصْب عَلَى الْمَصْدَر و " سَوَاء " بِمَعْنَى اِسْتِوَاء أَيْ اِسْتَوَتْ اِسْتِوَاء . وَقِيلَ : عَلَى الْحَال وَالْقَطْع ; وَالْجَرّ عَلَى النَّعْت لِأَيَّامٍ أَوْ لِأَرْبَعَةٍ أَيْ " فِي أَرْبَعَة أَيَّام " مُسْتَوِيَة تَامَّة . وَالرَّفْع عَلَى الِابْتِدَاء وَالْخَبَر " لِلسَّائِلِينَ " أَوْ عَلَى تَقْدِير هَذِهِ " سَوَاء لِلسَّائِلِينَ " . وَقَالَ أَهْل الْمَعَانِي : مَعْنَى " سَوَاء لِلسَّائِلِينَ " وَلِغَيْرِ السَّائِلِينَ ; أَيْ خَلَقَ الْأَرْض وَمَا فِيهَا لِمَنْ سَأَلَ وَلِمَنْ لَمْ يَسْأَل , وَيُعْطِي مَنْ سَأَلَ وَمَنْ لَا يَسْأَل (القرطبي).

Allâh says the meaning of which:

[9] "Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the Ardh (interior parts of early universe) in two Days? and do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds."

[10] He set on the (Ardh ). Like Mountains standing firm, above it, and bestowed blessings on the Ardh , and measured therein all things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in precisely four Days (periods) for those who seek knowledge, and also in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (sustenance).

[11] Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Samaa (upper part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye, willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'.

[12] So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days (periods) and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge" (Surah 41, Verses 9-12).

These verses address the question: Which came first, the galaxies or the large-scale structures? Did the galaxies form first and afterwards assemble into the large-scale structuress, or did the structures form first and then the galaxies condense within them. These scenarios are known as "bottom-up" and "top-down" respectively.

The discovery that some galaxies were arranged in sheets surrounding voids (Fairall 1998, page 118: Figure, Figure), and not just clusters, was interpreted as favoring "top-down" scenario (Figure ; Fairall 1998, page 166).

These verses support the "top-down" scenario: They are addressing the point that a large scale structure (Samaa and Ardh : a form of dark matter) is formed first. later on, stars and galaxies are formed: " And We adorned the lower heaven with lights". The "top-down" scenario is also emphasized by the verses:

[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the heaven (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it:

[28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.

[29] Its night doth He endow with darkness, and its splendor doth He bring out (with sun light).

[30] "And the Ardh (Earth), later on, Hath He Daha

[31] He draweth out Therefrom its water and its pasture

[32] And the mountains Hath He firmly fixed." (Surah No. 79, verses: 27-32).

Dense

(أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْءٍ حَيٍّ أَفَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ) [الأنبياء 30]. وأمّا الآن فهنَّ بسط وفتق (عمري 2004 : الأرضون السّبع).

Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae, measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, and measurements of the correlation function of galaxies, the Universe has a calculated age of 13.73 ± 0.12 billion years.^[30] The agreement of these three independent measurements strongly supports the Lambda-Cold Dark Matter model; which is frequently referred to as the standard model of big bang cosmology, since it attempts to explain the existence and structure of the cosmic microwave background, the large scale structure of galaxy clusters and the distribution of hydrogen, helium, lithium, oxygen and also the accelerating expansion of the universe observed in the light from distant galaxies and supernovae. It is the simplest model that is in general agreement with observed phenomena.

The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation:

[51] I called them not to witness the creation of the heavens and the earth, nor (even) their own creation: nor is it for Me to take as helpers such as lead (men) astray!

In the most common models, the Universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with an incredibly high energy density, huge temperatures and pressures, and was very rapidly expanding and cooling.

Rapidly expanding:

(ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ وَأَوْحَى فِي كُلِّ سَمَاءٍ أَمْرَهَا وَزَيَّنَّا السَّمَاءَ الدُّنْيَا بِمَصَابِيحَ وَحِفْظًا ذَلِكَ تَقْدِيرُ الْعَزِيزِ الْعَلِيمِ) [فصّلت آية 11-12 ]

Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Samaa (upper part of universe), and it had been smoke: He said to it and to Ardh (lower - interior - part of the Universe; not earth): 'Come ye, willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'. So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days (periods) and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge" (Surah 41, Verse 11-12).

He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days (periods): According to commentators, the day is either 24 hours, or a thousand years.

Cooling:

ثمّ بردت مع رفع السّمك (التّمدّد) بدليل (أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا _* رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا فَسَوَّاهَا _* وَأَغْطَشَ لَيْلَهَا وَأَخْرَجَ ضُحَاهَا) [النّازعات الآيات 27-29] .

[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection. [29] Its night doth He endow with darkness, and its splendour doth He bring out (with sun light).

Approximately 10⁻³⁷ seconds into the expansion, a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation, during which the Universe grew exponentially.^[31]

After inflation stopped, the Universe consisted of a quark–gluon plasma, as well as all other elementary particles.^[32] Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds, and particle–antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions:

- (سُبْحَانَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَزْوَاجَ كُلَّهَا مِمَّا تُنْبِتُ الْأَرْضُ وَمِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ وَمِمَّا لَا يَعْلَمُونَ) [يس 36]

36] Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs all things that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. (Surah no. 36).

- (والَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَزْوَاجَ كُلَّهَا) [الزّخرف 12]

12] (That has created pairs in all things, and has made for you ships and cattle on which ye ride) . (Surah no. 43).

- (وَمِنْ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ خَلَقْنَا زَوْجَيْنِ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَذَكَّرُونَ) [الذّاريات 49].

49] (And of everything We have created pairs: that ye may receive instruction) . (Surah no. 51).

At some point an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the conservation of baryon number, leading to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons—of the order of one part in 30 million. This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present Universe.^[33]

The Universe continued to grow in size and fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing. Symmetry breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form.^[34] After about 10⁻¹¹ seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments.

At about 10⁻⁶ seconds, quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons. The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons. The temperature was now no longer high enough to create new proton–antiproton pairs (similarly for neutrons–antineutrons), so a mass annihilation immediately followed, leaving just one in 10¹⁰ of the original protons and neutrons, and none of their antiparticles. A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons. After these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the Universe was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos).

A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion (one thousand million; 10⁹; SI prefix giga-) kelvins and the density was about that of air, neutrons combined with protons to form the Universe's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis.^[35] Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei. As the Universe cooled, the rest mass energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation. After about 379,000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly hydrogen); hence the radiation decoupled from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded.

(الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ الَّذِي خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَجَعَلَ الظُّلُمَاتِ وَالنُّورَ ثُمَّ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا بِرَبِّهِمْ يَعْدِلُونَ) (الأنعام 1)

This relic radiation is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation.^[36]

The Hubble Ultra Deep Field showcases galaxies from an ancient era when the Universe was younger, denser, and warmer according to the Big Bang theory.

Over a long period of time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today.

(الْجَوَارِي الْكُنَّسِ) (التكوير 16)

"So verily I call to witness the receding (Hidden blackholes, planets) * The runaway (Hidden black holes, planets, moving galaxies, stars and planets) Konnas (sweepers)." (Surah No. 81, verses 15-16).

(وَالأرْضَ مَدَدْنَاهَا وَأَلْقَيْنَا فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ وَأَنْبَتْنَا فِيهَا مِنْ كُلِّ زَوْجٍ بَهِيجٍ) (ق 7).

7] And the earth; We have spread it out, and set thereon mountains standing firm, and produced therein every kind of beautiful growth (in pairs), (Surah 50)

(وَالأرْضَ مَدَدْنَاهَا وَأَلْقَيْنَا فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ وَأَنْبَتْنَا فِيهَا مِنْ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ مَوْزُونٍ) (الحجر آية 19).

19] And the earth We have spread out; set thereon mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due balance. (Surah no. 15)

(وَهُوَ الَّذِي مَدَّ الأرْضَ وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ وَأَنْهَارًا وَمِنْ كُلِّ الثَّمَرَاتِ جَعَلَ فِيهَا زَوْجَيْنِ اثْنَيْنِ يُغْشِي اللَّيْلَ النَّهَارَ إِنَّ فِي ذَلِكَ لآيَاتٍ لِقَوْمٍ يَتَفَكَّرُونَ) (الرعد آية 3)

"And it is He (Allâh) who Madd the Ardh (Earth)." (Surah No. 13, verse 3

The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the Universe. The three possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter, hot dark matter and baryonic matter.

(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِمَا تُبْصِرُونَ * وَمَا لَا تُبْصِرُونَ) (الحاقة س 69، الآيتان 38-39)

"Furthermore I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not." (S. 69 V 38-39)

- (سُبْحَانَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَزْوَاجَ كُلَّهَا مِمَّا تُنْبِتُ الْأَرْضُ وَمِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ وَمِمَّا لَا يَعْلَمُونَ * وَآيَةٌ لَهُمُ اللَّيْلُ نَسْلَخُ مِنْهُ النَّهَارَ فَإِذَا هُمْ مُظْلِمُونَ) [يس 36-37]

[36] Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs all things that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. [37] And a Sign for them is the Night: We withdraw therefrom the Day, and behold they are plunged in darkness.

- (والَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَزْوَاجَ كُلَّهَا) [الزّخرف 12]

[12] That has created pairs in all things, and has made for you ships and cattle on which ye ride,

- (وَمِنْ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ خَلَقْنَا زَوْجَيْنِ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَذَكَّرُونَ) [الذّاريات 49].

[49] And of everything We have created pairs: that ye may receive instruction.

The best measurements available (from WMAP) show that the dominant form of matter in the Universe is cold dark matter. The other two types of matter make up less than 18% of the matter in the Universe.^[30]

Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply the Universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy, which apparently permeates (تتخلّل) all of space. The observations suggest 72% of the total energy density of today's Universe is in this form. When the Universe was very young, it was likely infused (مغروس) with dark energy, but with less space and everything closer together, gravity had the upper hand, and it was slowly braking the expansion.

"We have built The Samaa - Firmament - with might. And We indeed Have vast power; to expand it * And We have spread out Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 48).

[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.

But eventually, after numerous billion years of expansion, the growing abundance of dark energy caused the expansion of the Universe to slowly begin to accelerate. Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein's field equations of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown. ALLAH says:

The details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically.^[18]

All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the ΛCDM model of cosmology, which uses the independent frame works of quantum mechanics and Einstein's General Relativity. As noted above, there is no well-supported model describing the action prior to 10⁻¹⁵ seconds or so. Apparently a new unified theory of quantum gravitation is needed to break this barrier. Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the Universe is currently one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics.

[51] I called them not to witness the creation of the heavens and the earth, nor (even) their own creation: nor is it for Me to take as helpers such as lead (men) astray!

Underlying assumptions

The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions: the universality of physical laws, and the Cosmological Principle. The cosmological principle states that on large scales the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic:

(هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ لَكُمْ مَا فِي الْأَرْضِ جَمِيعًا ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ فَسَوَّاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ وَهُوَ بِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ عَلِيمٌ) (البقرة 29). الأرض هنا تعني الأرضين السّبع مجموعة ورتقاً، وهي تمثّل الجزء السفلي من الكون في بداية خلقه.

These ideas were initially taken as postulates, but today there are efforts to test each of them. For example, the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that largest possible deviation of the fine structure constant over much of the age of the Universe is of order 10⁻⁵.^[37] Also, General Relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the solar system and binary stars while extrapolation to cosmological scales has been validated by the empirical successes of various aspects of the Big Bang theory.^{[notes 3]}

If the large-scale Universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth, the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler Copernican Principle, which states that there is no preferred (or special) observer or vantage point. To this end, the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10⁻⁵ via observations of the CMB.^{[notes 4]} The Universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales at the 10% level.^[38]

Time of creation:

(يُدَبِّرُ الْأَمْرَ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ إِلَى الْأَرْضِ ثُمَّ يَعْرُجُ إِلَيْهِ فِي يَوْمٍ كَانَ مِقْدَارُهُ أَلْفَ سَنَةٍ مِمَّا تَعُدُّونَ) (السجدة 5)

"He rules (all) affairs from the heavens to the earth: in the end will (all affairs) go up to Him, on a Day, the space whereof will be (as) a thousand years of your reckoning." (Surah 32, verse 5).

Day of Judgment: Is fifty thousand years long.

(تَعْرُجُ الْمَلَائِكَةُ وَالرُّوحُ إِلَيْهِ فِي يَوْمٍ كَانَ مِقْدَارُهُ خَمْسِينَ أَلْفَ سَنَةٍ) (المعارج 4)

"The angels and the Spirit ascend unto Him in a Day the measure whereof is (as) fifty thousand years" (Surah 70 verse 4)

The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our Universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.

Horizons

Main article: Cosmological horizon

An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of horizons. Since the Universe has a finite age, and light travels at a finite speed, there may be events in the past whose light has not had time to reach us. This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed. Conversely, because space is expanding, and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly, light emitted by us today may never "catch up" to very distant objects. This defines a future horizon, which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence. The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the FLRW model that describes our Universe. Our understanding of the Universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon, though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the Universe at early times. So our view cannot extend further backward in time, though the horizon recedes in space. If the expansion of the Universe continues to accelerate, there is a future horizon as well.^[40]

(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِمَا تُبْصِرُونَ * وَمَا لَا تُبْصِرُونَ) (الحاقة س 69، الآيتان 38-39)

"Furthermore I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not." (S. 69 V 38-39)

Observational evidence

The earliest and most direct kinds of observational evidence are:

The Hubble-type expansion seen in the redshifts of galaxies,

[Furthermore I swear by The locations of the Stars,- And that is indeed A mighty adjuration If ye but knew,- That is indeed A Qur-an most honourable] (Surah. 56 verses. 75-77).

A Hubble Space Telescope observation has refined the measurement of the universe's present expansion rate to a precision where the error is smaller than five percent. The new value for the expansion rate, known as the Hubble constant, or H₀ (after Edwin Hubble who first measured the expansion of the universe nearly a century ago), is 74.2 kilometers per second per megaparsec (error margin of ± 3.6) (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2009/08/full/)). Among the miraculous aspects of this verse is that its number (75) is almost equal this best measured value of the Hubble constant; H₀ = 74.2 (± 3.6). However, there is an argumentsforaHubbleConstantnear H₀ = 558 kms^-1 Mpc^-1 (Arp 2002). Among the miraculous aspects of this verse is that the number of its Surah (chapter), 56, is almost equal this alternative value of the Hubble constant; H₀ = 55.

The detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background,

Among the miraculous aspects of this verse is that its number is 3, and it has a total of 18 words, and the order of the word (Tafawote: flaw) is 12. Calculation based on words gives

ولو حسبنا الحروف لحصلنا على الرقم:

This number is almost the same as the temperature of the CMBR.

The abundance of light elements (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis), and today also the large scale distribution and apparent evolution of galaxies^[41] which are predicted to occur due to gravitational growth of structure in the standard theory. These are sometimes called "the four pillars of the Big Bang theory".^[42]

Hubble's law and the expansion of space

Main articles: Hubble's law and metric expansion of space

Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted—the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission lines or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light. These redshifts are uniformly isotropic, distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions. If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift, the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated. For some galaxies, it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder. When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances, a linear relationship known as Hubble's law is observed:^[5]

$Description: v = H_0 D \,$

where

v	is the recessional velocity of the galaxy or other distant object
D	is the comoving proper distance to the object and
H₀	is Hubble's constant, measured to be 70.1 ± 1.3 km/s/Mpc by the WMAP probe.^[30]

Hubble's law has two possible explanations. Either we are at the center of an explosion of galaxies—which is untenable (لا يمكن الدفاع عنها) given the Copernican Principle—

Qur'an and Hadiths indicate that our planet, and thus MWG, are close to edge of observable part of Universe:

قرب مجرّتنا من البناء السَماوي الأوّل (عمري 2002 ، بناء السماء)

Time of creation:

- حَدَّثَنَا سُوَيْدٌ أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ أَخْبَرَنَا سَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ عَنْ أَبِي السَّمْحِ عَنْ عِيسَى بْنِ هِلالٍ الصَّدَفِيِّ عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عَمْرِو بْنِ الْعَاصِ قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهم عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ لَوْ أَنَّ رَصَاصَةً مِثْلَ هَذِهِ وَأَشَارَ إِلَى مِثْلِ الْجُمْجُمَةِ أُرْسِلَتْ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ إِلَى الأرْضِ هِيَ مَسِيرَةُ خَمْسِ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ لَبَلَغَتِ الأرْضَ قَبْلَ اللَّيْلِ وَلَوْ أَنَّهَا أُرْسِلَتْ مِنْ رَأْسِ السِّلْسِلَةِ لَسَارَتْ أَرْبَعِينَ خَرِيفًا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ قَبْلَ أَنْ تَبْلُغَ أَصْلَهَا أَوْ قَعْرَهَا (105).

- حَدَّثَنَا عَلِيُّ بْنُ إِسْحَاقَ أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ أَخْبَرَنَا سَعِيدُ بْنُ يَزِيدَ عَنْ أَبِي السَّمْحِ عَنْ عِيسَى بْنِ هِلالٍ الصَّدَفِيِّ عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عَمْرٍو قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهم عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ لَوْ أَنَّ رَصَاصَةً مِثْلَ هَذِهِ وَأَشَارَ إِلَى مِثْلِ جُمْجُمَةٍ أُرْسِلَتْ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ إِلَى الأرْضِ وَهِيَ مَسِيرَةُ خَمْسِ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ لَبَلَغَتِ الأرْضَ قَبْلَ اللَّيْلِ وَلَوْ أَنَّهَا أُرْسِلَتْ مِنْ رَأْسِ السِّلْسِلَةِ لَسَارَتْ أَرْبَعِينَ خَرِيفًا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ قَبْلَ أَنْ تَبْلُغَ أَصْلَهَا أَوْ قَعْرَهَا (106).

الروايتان السابقتان للحديث الحسن الصحيح المرفوع تؤكدان قرب مجرتنا من البناء السماوي الأول . كما تؤكدان أنَ طول السلسلة من سلاسل جهنّم كبير جدا بالمقارنة مع البعد بين كرتنا الأرضيّة والبناء السماوي الأوّل.

قعر جهنم : (خطبنا عتبة بن غزوان . فحمد الله وأثنى عليه ثم قال : أما بعد . فإن الدنيا قد آذنت بصرم وولت حذاء . ولم يبقى منها إلا صبابة كصبابة الإناء . يتصابها صاحبها . وإنكم منتقلون منها إلى دار لا زوال لها . فانتقلوا بخير ما بحضرتكم . فإنه قد ذكر لنا أن الحجر يلقى من شفة جهنم . فيهوي فيها سبعين عاما لا يدرك لها قعر. ووالله ! لتملأن . أفعجبتم ؟ ولقد ذكر لنا أن ما بين مصراعين من مصاريع الجنة مسيرة أربعين سنة . وليأتين عليها يوم وهو كظيظ من الزحام . ولقد رأيتني سابع سبعة مع رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم. ما لنا طعام إلا ورق الشجر. حتى تقرحت أشداقنا . فالتقطت بردة فشققتها بيني وبين سعد بن مالك. فاتزرت بنصفها واتزر سعد بنصفها . فما أصبح اليوم منا أحد إلا أصبح أميرا على مصر من الأمصار. وإني أعوذ بالله أن أكون في نفسي عظيما وعند الله صغيرا. وإنها لم تكن نبوة قط إلا تناسخت، حتى يكون آخر عاقبتها ملكا . فستخبرون وتجربون الأمراء بعدنا . (الراوي: خالد بن عمير العدوي المحدث: مسلم - المصدر: المسند الصحيح – الصفحة أو الرقم: 2967 ، خلاصة الدرجة: صحيح).

Day of Judgment:

"The angels and the Spirit ascend unto Him in a Day the measure whereof is (as) fifty thousand years" (Surah 70 verse 4)

Thus Hubble's law indicates that Universe is uniformly expanding everywhere. This universal expansion was predicted from general relativity by Alexander Friedman in 1922^[14] and Georges Lemaître in 1927,^[15] well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by Friedmann, Lemaître, Robertson and Walker.

The theory requires the relation V = HD to hold at all times, where D is the proper distance, v is the recessional velocity, and V, H, and D varying as the Universe expands (hence we write H₀ to denote the present-day Hubble "constant"). For distances much smaller than the size of the observable Universe, the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity v. However, the redshift is not a true Doppler shift, but rather the result of the expansion of the Universe between the time the light was emitted and the time that it was detected.^[43]

That space is undergoing metric expansion is shown by direct observational evidence of the Cosmological Principle and the Copernican Principle, which together with Hubble's law have no other explanation. Astronomical redshifts are extremely isotropic and homogenous,^[5] supporting the Cosmological Principle that the Universe looks the same in all directions, along with much other evidence.

If the redshifts were the result of an explosion from a center distant from us, they would not be so similar in different directions.

There is an attraction to a "top-down" scenario: there has to be a continuous medium trapped between the expanding bubbles. That the structures form first and then the galaxies condense within them, top-down scenario (Figures), is indicated by the verses:

[9] "Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the Ardh (interior parts of early universe) in two Days? and do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds."

[10] He set on the (Ardh). Like Mountains standing firm, above it, and bestowed blessings on the Ardh, and measured therein all things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in precisely four Days (periods) for those who seek knowledge, and also in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (sustenance).

وممّا يشير إلى هذا التّسلسل في الخلق وبشكل واضح قوله تعالى: (قُلْ أَئِنَّكُمْ لَتَكْفُرُونَ بِالَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَرْضَ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ وَتَجْعَلُونَ لَهُ أَنْدَادًا ذَلِكَ رَبُّ الْعَالَمِينَ * وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا وَبَارَكَ فِيهَا وَقَدَّرَ فِيهَا أَقْوَاتَهَا فِي أَرْبَعَةِ أَيَّامٍ سَوَاءً لِلسَّائِلِينَ * ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ائْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًا قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ * فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ وَأَوْحَى فِي كُلِّ سَمَاءٍ أَمْرَهَا وَزَيَّنَّا السَّمَاءَ الدُّنْيَا بِمَصَابِيحَ وَحِفْظًا ذَلِكَ تَقْدِيرُ الْعَزِيزِ الْعَلِيمِ) [فصلت 9-12].

يرى الباحثُ أنّ الآية الكريمة (وَجَعَلَ فِيهَا رَوَاسِيَ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا وَبَارَكَ فِيهَا) قد تشير إلى المادّة المظلمة (Dark matter) الّتي بدأت تتشكّل وتتكوّن وترسو في الجزء العلوي من الأرض (الأرض بمعنى جهة السّفل). أي المادّة الّتي بدأت تتشكّل في أعالي الأرضين السّبع؛ أي في الأماكن الأقرب إلى الحيّز الداخلي للبناء السّماوي الأوّل (العمري ، الأرضون السّبع؛ العمري،بناء السماء والمادّة المظلمة الباردة؛ Padmanabhan, T., 1998, pages 129, 138, 157.). وهذه المادّة هي أساس بناء الأرض العليا بعد فتق الأرضين. ويراد بالأرض العليا تلك الّتي تحتضن مجرّة درب التّبانة؛ الّتي توجد فيها مجموعتنا الشّمسيّة (العمري، الأرضون السّبع).

(وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ _* وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ)] الذاريات 47-48 [.

كما أنَّ البناء السّماوي في توسّعٍ دائم (سبق بيانه في بحث السماء)، فإنَّ فرش الأرض ومهادها مستمرّ إلى يوم القيامة، حيث أنَّ الأرض هنا تعني الأرضين السَّبع (أنظر بحث : الأرضون السّبع).

هذا وإنَّ اللّه سبحانه وتعالى قد خلق الأرض (الأرضين السَّبع) ثمَّ أمدَّها بالمادّة الّتي شكّلت المجرّات والنجوم، وهذا مما قد تشير إليه الآيات الكريمة: (والأرض مددناها) (الحجر سورة 15 آية 19، ق سورة 50 آية 7)، (وهو الّذي مدّ الأرض) (الرعد سورة 13 آية 3). إذْ إنّ المدّ في قوله سبحانه (والأرض مددناها) له معاني وأشكال كثيرة (فصل مدّ الأرض) وقد تعني هنا الإمداد المتتابع للأرضين السّبع وزيادتها بمادّة تكوين المجرّات والنّجوم.

Only once the texture was generated could the material fragment and condense into galaxies. The bubbles of galaxies would have merely expanded through one another (Ostricker and Strassler 1989; Fairall 1998, page 176).

Measurements of the effects of the cosmic microwave background radiation on the dynamics of distant astrophysical systems in 2000 proved the Copernican Principle, that the Earth is not in a central position, on a cosmological scale.^{[notes 5]} Radiation from the Big Bang was demonstrably warmer at earlier times throughout the Universe. Uniform cooling of the cosmic microwave background over billions of years is explainable only if the Universe is experiencing a metric expansion, and excludes the possibility that we are near the unique center of an explosion:

(لَوْ أَنَّ رَصَاصَةً مِثْلَ هَذِهِ وَأَشَارَ إِلَى مِثْلِ الْجُمْجُمَةِ أُرْسِلَتْ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ إِلَى الأرْضِ هِيَ مَسِيرَةُ خَمْسِ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ لَبَلَغَتِ الأرْضَ قَبْلَ اللَّيْلِ وَلَوْ أَنَّهَا أُرْسِلَتْ مِنْ رَأْسِ السِّلْسِلَةِ لَسَارَتْ أَرْبَعِينَ خَرِيفًا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ قَبْلَ أَنْ تَبْلُغَ أَصْلَهَا أَوْ قَعْرَهَا)

Cosmic microwave background radiation

Main article: Cosmic microwave background radiation

WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation

During the first few days of the Universe, the Universe was in full thermal equilibrium, with photons being continually emitted and absorbed, giving the radiation a blackbody spectrum. As the Universe expanded, it cooled to a temperature at which photons could no longer be created or destroyed. The temperature was still high enough for electrons and nuclei to remain unbound, however, and photons were constantly "reflected" from these free electrons through a process called Thomson scattering. Because of this repeated scattering, the early Universe was opaque to light.

When the temperature fell to a few thousand Kelvin, electrons and nuclei began to combine to form atoms, a process known as recombination. Since photons scatter infrequently from neutral atoms, radiation decoupled from matter when nearly all the electrons had recombined, at the epoch of last scattering, 379,000 years after the Big Bang. These photons make up the CMB that is observed today, and the observed pattern of fluctuations in the CMB is a direct picture of the Universe at this early epoch. The energy of photons was subsequently redshifted by the expansion of the Universe, which preserved the blackbody spectrum but caused its temperature to fall, meaning that the photons now fall into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiation is thought to be observable at every point in the Universe, and comes from all directions with (almost) the same intensity.

In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson accidentally discovered the cosmic background radiation while conducting diagnostic observations using a new microwave receiver owned by Bell Laboratories.^[26] Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the general CMB predictions—the radiation was found to be isotropic and consistent with a blackbody spectrum of about 3 K—and it pitched the balance of opinion in favor of the Big Bang hypothesis. Penzias and Wilson were awarded a Nobel Prize for their discovery.

In 1989, NASA launched the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE), and the initial findings, released in 1990, were consistent with the Big Bang's predictions regarding the CMB. COBE found a residual temperature of 2.726 K and in 1992 detected for the first time the fluctuations (anisotropies) in the CMB, at a level of about one part in 10⁵.^[27] John C. Mather and George Smoot were awarded Nobels for their leadership in this work. During the following decade, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based and balloon experiments. In 2000–2001, several experiments, most notably BOOMERanG, found the Universe to be almost spatially flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies. (See shape of the Universe.)

In early 2003, the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. This spacecraft also disproved several specific cosmic inflation models, but the results were consistent with the inflation theory in general,^[28] it confirms too that a sea of cosmic neutrinos permeates the Universe, a clear evidence that the first stars took more than a half-billion years to create a cosmic fog. A new space probe named Planck, with goals similar WMAP, was launched in May 2009. It is anticipated to soon provide even more accurate measurements of the CMB anisotropies. Many other ground- and balloon-based experiments are also currently running; see Cosmic microwave background experiments.

The background radiation is exceptionally smooth, which presented a problem in that conventional expansion would mean that photons coming from opposite directions in the sky were coming from regions that had never been in contact with each other. The leading explanation for this far reaching equilibrium is that the Universe had a brief period of rapid exponential expansion, called inflation:

"And We indeed Have vast power; to expand it". This interprets as: ALLAH constructs Samaa via expansion ([v]). ALLAH create and elevate Samaa with vast force and power, and We (ALLAH) are able to expand it as We desire ([vi]). We are able to expand, as We expand its construction ([vii]).

[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.

This would have the effect of driving apart regions that had been in equilibrium, so that all the observable Universe was from the same equilibrated region.

Abundance of primordial elements

Main article: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of helium-4, helium-3, deuterium and lithium-7 in the Universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen, H.^[35] All the abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of photons to baryons, which itself can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations. The ratios predicted (by mass, not by number) are about 0.25 for ⁴He/H, about 10⁻³ for ²H/H, about 10⁻⁴ for ³He/H and about 10⁻⁹ for ⁷Li/H.^[35]

The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is excellent for deuterium, close but formally discrepant for ⁴He, and a factor of two off for ⁷Li; in the latter two cases there are substantial systematic uncertainties. Nonetheless, the general consistency with abundances predicted by BBN is strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements, and it is virtually impossible to "tune" the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20–30% helium.^[44] Indeed there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young Universe (i.e., before star formation, as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than ³He, and in constant ratios, too.

Galactic evolution and distribution

Main articles: Large-scale structure of the cosmos, Structure formation, and Galaxy formation and evolution

This panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the Milky Way. The galaxies are color coded by redshift.

Detailed observations of the morphology and distribution of galaxies and quasars provide strong evidence for the Big Bang. A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then larger structures have been forming, such as galaxy clusters and superclusters:

برد الكون مع رفع سمك السّماء (التّمدّد) بدليل (أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا _* رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا فَسَوَّاهَا _* وَأَغْطَشَ لَيْلَهَا وَأَخْرَجَ ضُحَاهَا) [النّازعات الآيات 27-29] .

The universe cools as it expands, which is stated by the verses:

Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early Universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the Universe and are helping to complete details of the theory.^[45]^[46]

Other lines of evidence

After some controversy, the age of Universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with (i.e., slightly larger than) the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars.

The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of temperature-sensitive emission lines in gas clouds at high redshift. This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift; this seems to be roughly true, but unfortunately the amplitude does depend on cluster properties which do change substantially over cosmic time, so a precise test is impossible.

Features, issues and problems

While scientists now prefer the Big Bang model over other cosmological models, the scientific community was once divided between supporters of the Big Bang and those of alternative cosmological models. Throughout the historical development of the subject, problems with the Big Bang theory were posed in the context of a scientific controversy regarding which model could best describe the cosmological observations (see the history section above). With the overwhelming consensus in the community today supporting the Big Bang model, many of these problems are remembered as being mainly of historical interest; the solutions to them have been obtained either through modifications to the theory or as the result of better observations.

The core ideas of the Big Bang—the expansion, the early hot state, the formation of helium, the formation of galaxies—are derived from many observations that are independent from any cosmological model; these include the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure, and the Hubble diagram for Type Ia supernovae.

Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics. Of these features, dark matter is currently the subject to the most active laboratory investigations.^[47]

Dark matter is addressed by the verse:

(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِمَا تُبْصِرُونَ * وَمَا لَا تُبْصِرُونَ) (الحاقة س 69، الآيتان 38-39)

"Furthermore I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not." (S. 69 V 38-39)

Remaining issues, such as the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter, are not fatal to the dark matter explanation as solutions to such problems exist which involve only further refinements of the theory.

السماوات السّبع والأرضون السّبع

أمّا الآية الّتي بيّنت أنّ الأرضين سبع فهي قوله سبحانه وتعالى: (اللَّهُ الَّذِي خَلَقَ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ وَمِنَ الْأَرْضِ مِثْلَهُنَّ يَتَنَزَّلُ الْأَمْرُ بَيْنَهُنَّ لِتَعْلَمُوا أنّ اللَّهَ عَلَى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ قَدِيرٌ وَأَنَّ اللَّهَ قَدْ أَحَاطَ بِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ عِلْمًا) [الطلاق 12]. قرأ الجمهور (مثلهنّ) بالنّصب عطفاً على (سبع سموات) أو على تقدير فعَل: أي وخلق من الأرض مثلهنّ (إيجاز حذف: أي وخلق سبعاً من الأرض) (الشوكاني، محمد بن علي بن محمّد (ت 1250 هـ)، فتح القدير الجامع بين فنّي الرّواية والدّراية من علم التّفسير، عالم الكتب (بلا تاريخ) ، 5 أجزاء. ج 5، ص 247.).

تبيّن بعض الآيات أنّ الأرضين عدّة، ومن هذه الآيات:

- (هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ لَكُمْ مَا فِي الْأَرْضِ جَمِيعًا ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى إِلَى السَّمَاءِ فَسَوَّاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَاوَاتٍ وَهُوَ بِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ عَلِيمٌ) [البقرة 29].

الأرض هنا تعني الأرضون السّبع مجموعة ورتقاً وهي تمثّل الجزء السفلي من الكون في بداية خلقه.

(وَمَا قَدَرُوا اللَّهَ حَقَّ قَدْرِهِ وَالْأَرْضُ جَمِيعًا قَبْضَتُهُ يَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ وَالسَّمَاوَاتُ مَطْوِيَّاتٌ بِيَمِينِهِ سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ) [الزمر 67]. الْأَرْضُ هنا تعني الأرضون السّبع، حيث ستعود يوم القيامة مجموعة ورتقاً.

"No just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to Him: The Ardhean (lower part of universe; mostly dark matter holding galaxies) will be coupled, His handful on the Day of Judgment, and the heavens will be rolled up in His right hand: Glory to Him! High is He above the Partners they attribute to Him!: (Al-Zumar 39:67).

وأما الأحاديث النبوية فكثيرة (عمري 2004 ، الأرضون السّبع).

Dark energy is also an area of intense interest for scientists, but it is not clear whether direct detection of dark energy will be possible.^[48]

(وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ _* وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) ] 48-47 الذّاريات[.

[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.

On the other hand, inflation and baryogenesis remain somewhat more speculative features of current Big Bang models: they explain important features of the early universe, but could be replaced by alternative ideas without affecting the rest of the theory.^{[notes 6]} Discovering the correct explanations for such phenomena are some of the remaining unsolved problems in physics.

Horizon problem

Main article: Horizon problem

The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light. In a Universe of finite age, this sets a limit—the particle horizon—on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact.^[49] The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard: if the Universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering, the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky. There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature.

A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflationary theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the Universe at some very early period (before baryogenesis). During inflation, the Universe undergoes exponential expansion, and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed, so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable Universe are well inside each other's particle horizon. The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation.

Rapidly expanding:

(أَأَنْتُمْ أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا _* رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا فَسَوَّاهَا) [النّازعات 27-28].

[27] What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)? (Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.

إنما أمره إذا أراد شيئا أن يقول له كن فيكون.

Cooling:

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be quantum thermal fluctuations, which would be magnified to cosmic scale. These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the Universe. Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian, which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB.

If inflation occurred, exponential expansion would push large regions of space well beyond our observable horizon.

(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِمَا تُبْصِرُونَ * وَمَا لَا تُبْصِرُونَ) (الحاقة س 69، الآيتان 38-39)

"Furthermore I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not." (S. 69 V 38-39)

Flatness/oldness problem

Main article: Flatness problem

The overall geometry of the Universe is determined by whether the Omega cosmological parameter is less than, equal to or greater than 1. Shown from top to bottom are a closed Universe with positive curvature, a hyperbolic Universe with negative curvature and a flat Universe with zero curvature.

The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is an observational problem associated with a Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric.^[49] The Universe may have positive, negative or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density. Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density, positive if greater, and zero at the critical density, in which case space is said to be flat. The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the Universe today remains very close to flat.^{[notes 7]} Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10⁻⁴³ seconds, the fact that the Universe has reached neither a Heat Death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires some explanation. For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the Universe density must have been within one part in 10¹⁴ of its critical value, or it would not exist as it does today.^[50]

A resolution to this problem is offered by inflationary theory. During the inflationary period, spacetime expanded to such an extent that its curvature would have been smoothed out. Thus, it is theorized that inflation drove the Universe to a very nearly spatially flat state, with almost exactly the critical density.

(وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ) أي بناءها فالجملة حاليّة أي: بنيناها بتوسيعها، وقيل خلقناها بقوّة وقدرة ونحن قادرون على أن نوسِّعها كما نريد. وقيل أي رفعناها بقوّة.

And We indeed Have vast power and force; to build the Samaa (sky, firmaments, space) via expansion and to keep on its expansion.

(وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ) : تم فرش وبسط الأرضين السّبع ( مادة مظلمة باردة تتكون من سبع قشرات متمركزة : الحاضن الجاذبي للمجرات).

Magnetic monopoles

Main article: Magnetic monopole

The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s. Grand unification theories predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles. These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early Universe, resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations, given that searches have never found any monopoles. This problem is also resolved by cosmic inflation, which removes all point defects from the observable Universe in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness.^[49]:

(قَالَتَا أَتَيْنَا طَائِعِينَ) : على الفور. (السَّمَاءِ وَهِيَ دُخَانٌ) تكوّنت على الفور.

And We indeed Have vast power and force; to build the Samaa (sky, firmaments, space) via expansion and to keep on its expansion.

Dark matter

Main article: Dark matter

A pie chart indicating the proportional composition of different energy-density components of the Universe, according to the best ΛCDM model fits – roughly 95% is in the exotic forms of dark matter and dark energy

During the 1970s and 1980s, various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the Universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the Universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter. In addition, the assumption that the Universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the Universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter was initially controversial, it is now indicated by numerous observations: the anisotropies in the CMB, galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, gravitational lensing studies, and X-ray measurements of galaxy clusters.^[55]

The evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, and no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories. Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.^[56]

Dark energy

Main article: Dark energy

Measurements of the redshift–magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae have revealed that the expansion of the Universe has been accelerating since the Universe was about half its present age. To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the energy in the Universe consists of a component with large negative pressure, dubbed "dark energy". Dark energy is indicated by several other lines of evidence. Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the Universe is very nearly spatially flat, and therefore according to general relativity the Universe must have almost exactly the critical density of mass/energy. But the mass density of the Universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering, and is found to have only about 30% of the critical density.^[18] Since dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the "missing" energy density. Dark energy is also required by two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the Universe, one using the frequency of gravitational lenses, and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large-scale structure as a cosmic ruler.

Both dark matter, and the so called dark energy are probably referred to by the verse:

Negative pressure is a property of vacuum energy, but the exact nature of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a cosmological constant and quintessence (is dynamic, and generally has a density and w_q parameter that varies with time. By contrast, a cosmological constant is static, with a fixed energy density and w_q = −1). Results from the WMAP team in 2008, which combined data from the CMB and other sources, indicate that the Universe today is 72% dark energy, 23% dark matter, 4.6% regular matter and less than 1% neutrinos.^[30] The energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the Universe, but the dark energy density remains constant (or nearly so) as the Universe expands. Therefore matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the Universe in the past than it does today, but its fractional contribution will fall in the far future as dark energy becomes even more dominant.

In the ΛCDM, the best current model of the Big Bang, dark energy is explained by the presence of a cosmological constant in the general theory of relativity. However, the size of the constant that properly explains dark energy is surprisingly small relative to naive estimates based on ideas about quantum gravity. Distinguishing between the cosmological constant and other explanations of dark energy is an active area of current research.

The future according to the Big Bang theory

Main article: Ultimate fate of the Universe

Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the Universe. If the mass density of the Universe were greater than the critical density, then the Universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state that was similar to that in which it started—a Big Crunch.^[40]

The Big Crunch is referred to by the verses:

الْأَرْضُ هنا تعني الأرضون السّبع، حيث ستعود يوم القيامة مجموعة ورتقاً. بدأت الأرضون السّبع قبضاً، ثمّ فتقها الخالق سبحانه وتعالى سبعاً، هذا وستعود يوم القيامة إلى حالة القبض (عمري 2004 خلق الكون بين الآيات القرآنيّة والحقائق العلميّة؛ عمري: مؤتمر كليّة الشريعة السابع إعجاز القرآن الكريم. 18-20 رجب 1426 هـ، 23- 25 آب 2005. جامعة الزرقاء الأهليّة/ الأردن، محاضرة: الأرضون السّبع وتوزيع الصفائح المجرِّيّة الضخمة على نطاق كوني واسع).

- (يَوْمَ نَطْوِي السَّمَاءَ كَطَيِّ السِّجِلِّ لِلْكُتُبِ كَمَا بَدَأْنَا أَوَّلَ خَلْقٍ نُعِيدُهُ وَعْدًا عَلَيْنَا إِنَّا كُنَّا فَاعِلِينَ) سورة الأنبياء آية رقم 104. البناء السّماوي الّذي سيطويه اللّهُ يوم القيامة، أو المجرّات التي ستطوى يوم القيامة؛ حيث يقبض اللّه الأرضين السّبع التي تحمل المجرّات بجاذبيّتها. وقد تعني الفضاء الكوني الذي سيطوى يوم القيامة.

Alternatively, if the density in the Universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down, but never stop. Star formation would cease as all the interstellar gas in each galaxy is consumed; stars would burn out leaving white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. Very gradually, collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the Universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero—a Big Freeze. Moreover, if the proton were unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. The entropy of the Universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.

Modern observations of accelerated expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible Universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known. The ΛCDM model of the Universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, would remain together, and they too would be subject to heat death, as the Universe expands and cools. Other explanations of dark energy—so-called phantom energy theories—suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters, stars, planets, atoms, nuclei and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called Big Rip.^[57]

- (فَإِذَا انشَقَّتْ السَّمَاءُ فَكَانَتْ وَرْدَةً كَالدِّهَانِ) سورة الرحمن آية رقم 37 .

"When the Samaa (firmament, sky) is rent asunder, and it becomes red like ointment" (S 55, V 37)

- (وَانشَقَّتْ السَّمَاءُ فَهِيَ يَوْمَئِذٍ وَاهِيَةٌ) سورة الحاقة آية رقم 16.

"And the Samaa (firmament, sky) will be rent asunder, for it will that Day be flimsy" (S 69, V 16)

- (وَيَوْمَ تَشَقَّقُ السَّمَاءُ بِالْغَمَامِ وَنُزِّلَ الْمَلَائِكَةُ تَنزِيلًا) سورة الفرقان آية رقم 25.

"The Day the Samaa shall be rent asunder with clouds, and angels shall be sent down, descending (in ranks)" (S 25, V 25)

- (يَوْمَ تَكُونُ السَّمَاءُ كَالْمُهْلِ) سورة المعارج آية رقم 8 .

"The Day that the Samaa (firmament, sky) will be like molten brass" (S 70, V 8).

- (السَّمَاءُ مُنْفَطِرٌ بِهِ كَانَ وَعْدُهُ مَفْعُولًا) سورة المزمل آية رقم 18.

"Whereon the Samaa (firmament, sky) will be cleft asunder? His Promise needs must be accomplished" (S 73, V 18).

- (وَإِذَا السَّمَاءُ فُرِجَتْ) سورة المرسلات آية رقم 9.

"When the Samaa (firmament, sky) is cleft asunder;" (S 77, V 9)

- (وَإِذَا السَّمَاءُ كُشِطَتْ) سورة التكوير آية رقم 11.

(وَإِذَا السَّمَاءُ كُشِطَتْ): الْكَشْط : قَلْع عَنْ شِدَّة اِلْتِزَاق ; فَالسَّمَاء تُكْشَط كَمَا يُكْشَط الْجِلْد عَنْ الْكَبْش وَغَيْره وَالْقَشْط : لُغَة فِيهِ . وَفِي قِرَاءَة عَبْد اللَّه " وَإِذَا السَّمَاء قُشِطَتْ " وَكَشَطْت الْبَعِير كَشْطًا : نَزَعْت جِلْدَهُ وَلَا يُقَال سَلَخْته ; لِأَنَّ الْعَرَب لَا تَقُول فِي الْبَعِير إِلَّا كَشَطْته أَوْ جَلَدْته , وَانْكَشَطَ : أَيْ ذَهَبَ ; فَالسَّمَاء تُنْزَع مِنْ مَكَانهَا كَمَا يُنْزَع الْغِطَاء عَنْ الشَّيْء . وَقِيلَ : تُطْوَى كَمَا قَالَ تَعَالَى : " يَوْم نَطْوِي السَّمَاء كَطَيِّ السِّجِلّ لِلْكُتُبِ " [ الْأَنْبِيَاء : 104 ] فَكَأَنَّ الْمَعْنَى : قُلِعَتْ فَطُوِيَتْ . وَاَللَّه أَعْلَم (القرطبي).

"When the Samaa (firmament, sky; ) gets stripped and collapses onto itself)" (S 81, V 11)

- (إِذَا السَّمَاءُ انفَطَرَتْ) سورة الانفطار آية رقم 1 .

"When the Samaa (firmament, sky; ..) is cleft asunder" (S 82, V 1)

- (إِذَا السَّمَاءُ انشَقَّتْ) سورة الانشقاق آية رقم 1.

"When the Samaa (firmament, sky; ..) is rent asunder" (S 84, V 1)

- (وَإِذَا الْكَوَاكِبُ انْتَثَرَتْ) سورة الانفطار آية رقم 2 . أَيْ تَسَاقَطَتْ .

"When the planets are scattered" (S 82, V 2)

Notes

1. ^ It is commonly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative. However, Hoyle later denied that, saying that it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for radio listeners. See chapter 9 of The Alchemy of the Heavens by Ken Croswell, Anchor Books, 1995.

2. ^ There is no consensus about how long the Big Bang phase lasted. For some writers this denotes only the initial singularity, for others the whole history of the Universe. Usually, at least the first few minutes (during which helium is synthesized) are said to occur "during the Big Bang".

3. ^ Detailed information of and references for tests of general relativity are given at Tests of general relativity.

4. ^ This ignores the dipole anisotropy at a level of 0.1% due to the peculiar velocity of the solar system through the radiation field.

5. ^ Astronomers reported their measurement in a paper published in the December 2000 issue of Nature titled The microwave background temperature at the redshift of 2.33771 which can be read here. A press release from the European Southern Observatory explains the findings to the public.

6. ^ If inflation is true, baryogenesis must have occurred, but not vice versa.

7. ^ Strictly, dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant drives the Universe towards a flat state; however, our Universe remained close to flat for several billion years, before the dark energy density became significant.

References

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2. ^ Wright, E.L. (9 May 2009). "What is the evidence for the Big Bang?". Frequently Asked Questions in Cosmology. UCLA, Division of Astronomy and Astrophysics. http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmology_faq.html#BBevidence. Retrieved 2009-10-16.

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4. ^ Menegoni, Eloisa et al. (2009), "New constraints on variations of the fine structure constant from CMB anisotropies", Physical Review D 80 (8), doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.80.087302, http://arxiv.org/abs/0909.3584

5. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Hubble, E. (1929). "A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 15 (3): 168–73. doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168. PMID 16577160. PMC 522427. http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/debate/1996/hub_1929.html.

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14. ^ ^a ^b Friedman, A.A. (1922). "Über die Krümmung des Raumes". Zeitschrift für Physik 10: 377–386. doi:10.1007/BF01332580. (German)

(English translation in: Friedman, A. (1999). "On the Curvature of Space". General Relativity and Gravitation 31: 1991–2000. doi:10.1023/A:1026751225741. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999GReGr..31.1991F. )

15. ^ ^a ^b Lemaître, G. (1927). "Un univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extragalactiques". Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels 47A: 41. (French)

(Translated in: "A Homogeneous Universe of Constant Mass and Growing Radius Accounting for the Radial Velocity of Extragalactic Nebulae". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 91: 483–490. 1931. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931MNRAS..91..483L. )

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Books

· Kolb, Edward; Turner, Michael (1988). The Early Universe. Addison–Wesley. ISBN 0-201-11604-9.

· Peacock, John (1999). Cosmological Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521422701.

· Padmanabhan, T, After the first three minutes the history of our universe, Cambridge university press, UK, first ed., 1998, p 129, 138, 157.

· Arp, H.: The Astrophysical Journal, 571:615-618, 2002 June 1

Further References:

كتب التفسير:

(1الرّازي، فخر الدين، التفسير الكبير ومفاتيح الغيب. م 14، ص 228.

(2الأندلسي الغرناطي، محمد بن يوسف، النهر الماد من البحر الى المحيط. م 5، ص 244.

(3 ابن عطية الأندلسي، أبي محمد، المحرر الوجيز في تفسير الكتاب العزيز. ج 5، ص 181.

(4أبي العباس، شهاب الدين (ت 756هـ) ، الدر المصون في علوم الكتاب المكنون ، دار الكتب العلمية (بيروت-لبنان 1414 هـ-1994 م)، ستة أجزاء . ج 6، ص 192.

(5الأندلسي الغرناطي، محمد بن يوسف، البحر المحيط. ج 9، ص 560.

(6السمرقندي ، أبي الليث نصر بن محمد (ت 375 هـ) ، بحر العلوم ، دار الكتب العلمية (بيروت-لبنان 1413 هـ-1993 م)، ثلاثة أجزاء . ج 3، ص 280.

(7الجوزي، أبي الفرج جمال الدين (ت 597 هـ) ، زاد المسير في علم التفسير ، دار الفكر (بيروت-لبنان 1407 هـ-1987 م)، ثمانية أجزاء . ج 7، ص 212.

(8الخطيب، عبدالكريم ، التفسير القرآني للقرآن ، دار الفكر (بيروت-لبنان 1970 م)، ثلاثون جزءاً . م 14، ص 529-530.

(9 الزمخشري، أبو القاسم جار اللّه محمود بن عمر، الكشاف. م 4، ص 20.

(10الرّازي، فخر الدين، التفسير الكبير ومفاتيح الغيب. م 14، ص 227 .

(11النيسابوري، نظام الدين الحسن بن محمد القمّي (ت 728 هج)، تفسير غرائب القرآن ورغائب الفرقان، تحقيق زكريا عميرات، دار الكتب العلميّة (بيروت 1416 هـ- 1996 م). ج 1، ص 210.

(12العمادي، أبي السعود محمد بن محمد، تفسير أبي السعود إرشاد العقل السليم إلى مزايا القرآن الكريم. ج 1 ، ص 78.

(13البيضاوي، ناصر الدين الشيرازي، أنوار التنـزيل وأسرار التأويل. ج 1، ص 273.

مراجع عربية:

1) العمري، حسين يوسف راشد، الأرضون السّبع لغز المادّة المظلمة وبوّابة تكميم الكون، مجلّة كليّة المعارف الجامعة، الأنبار، (2004)، العدد السادس، ص 10.

2) العمري، حسين، بناء السّماء والمادّة المظلمة الباردة دراسة مقارنة بين الفلك والقرآن. مؤتة للبحوث والدّراسات، سلسلة العلوم الإنسانيّة والاجتماعيّة، 2002. م 17، عدد 6، ص 187-211.

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