To English
To Arabic-English
To
Arabic
Creation and Eventual Expectations of Earth’s
Destiny According to Glorious Qur'an
Hussain Y.I.R. Omari
rashed@mutah.edu.jo
Physics Department/ Mutah
University/JORDAN
Editing
and Partial Translation: AbdulHafeth Khrisat; departmet of English.
ABSTRACT
This paper aims at examining the
global physical miraculous aspects included in the Quranic verses dealing with the Ardh (Earth) madd
at its time of creation, and at
the Day of Judgment. The Arabic word Madd has various meanings.
The most relevant are accretion, and (or) inflation. The article gives the physical implications in God’s description for
earth’s creation: "And the Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it." (Surah No.
50 verse 7, Surah No. 15 verse 19), and the verse "And it is He (Allâh)
who Madd the Ardh (Earth)." (Surah No. 13, verse 3). Also it gives the implications in God’s
description for earth’s situation on The Day of Judgment: "And When the
Ardh (Earth) is Madd." (Surat AL-Inshiqaq No. 84, verse 3). Earth will be Madd:
Inflated; due to accretion, tidal interaction and heating. Its surface area will be increased and
smoothly curved; as it gets rid of core and mountains. Eight hundred
years ago, al-Razi
has explained this verse; where he says: “One has to know that increasing the
area of the earth is a must, whether through inflation or accretion” (al-Razi, 1995, XVI: Part 31, p. 105).
I. The Meanings of the Arabic Words Madd, Daho,
Ardh , Sama and , Sahirah
I. 1: The Various
Meanings of Madd (Ibn al-Manzur, ed. 1993,
XIII: 50-52.)
Madd: attraction; as moon-ocean force
of attraction increases, Madd
(tide) occurs.
al-Lahyani said that the verse: "And the Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it." (Surah No. 50 Verse 7,
Surah No. 15 Verse 19) means leveled and made it flat. Earth will be Madd on the Day of Judgment: "And When the Ardh (Earth) is Madd." (Surat
AL-Inshiqaq No. 84, verse 3).
Also madd of the ardh
(field, a piece of land) denotes the increase of its components by addition of
fertilizers and soil in order to produce in abundance. In another context, for example, a particular
valley madd into another river means that it adds and increases its
water current. In the same context, a
river madd another river (flows and merges into it). Generally speaking, as al-Lahyani remarked,
every thing madd another denotes addition and increase to it. Madd also indicates every thing that
supplies others as a source for it. God’s
verse says: "Say: 'If the ocean were medad (ink)
wherewith to write out the words of my Lord, Sooner would the ocean be
exhausted than would the words of my Lord, even if we added another ocean like
it, for its medad'." (Al-Kahf No. 18, verse 109). Medad
means (aid, ink). Al_Farra, an Islamic scholar, interprets
Qur'anic verses: "And if all the trees on Ardh
(earth) were pens and the Ocean (were ink), with seven Oceans behind it to Madd
(add to its supply), yet would not the Words of Allâh be exhausted (in the
writing): for Allâh is exalted in power, full of Wisdom" (Luqman No. 31,
verse 27). Al_Farra says: Medad
(a derivative from madd): is like ink.
Allâh madd Euphrates with water, and Euphrates madd our
water currents and rivers. In the lexicon, the group is madd with
supporters and others means assisting them in their mission. It is mentioned that a group madd the
army (supply them with more food, water, arms and ammunition).
According to Shammur, if something is madd,
it implies that it is full to the brim but if a river madd, its water
level gets higher; if somebody madd the bottle of ink (adds to its
content). According to Abu Zayed: People use to say Allâh madd in your
life (hope you live long). Another usage
of the word madd is to say that the day madd (the sun rises and
the time is almost at noon: it is not early morning). To madd something
indicates accretion, i.e. to add to its substance (Ibn al-Manzur, XIII: 50-52). Also other meanings of accretion are: 1- Growing together of
separate things. 2- An increase in size
by natural growth or gradual external addition.
3- A whole that results from such growths or additions. 4- A thing added; addition. 5- Growth in size. 6- The increase in area of a piece of land,
beach, etc., by the washing up of soil (Barnhart, 1977, I: 15). 7- The process by which compact stars capture
ambient matter is called accretion (Shapiro, 1983, p. 403).
Madd also means inflation: 1- The act of swelling (as with
air, gas, pride, or satisfaction). 2- A
swollen state; too great expansion. 3-
An increase of the currency of a country by issuing much paper money. 4- A sharp and sudden rise in prices
resulting from a too great expansion in paper money or bank credit (Barnhart,
I: 1083). Universes with exponential expansion
are nowadays called inflationary (Ross, 1994, p. 62).
Thus
the Arabic word Madd can mean: Accretion, and (or) Inflation; give
rope in: extends (the rope) to; plunge deeper in to; help with, assist with;
give, somebody, increase in; bestow freely on; grant resources in abundance;
aid; add to (supply): like ink for a pen; stretch out (a rope). God Madd; prolong; the shadow: Make
long-extended. God Madd the
earth: spread out; inflated; formed from small gravitating objects.
The above meanings for the Arabic
word (Madd), are taken from the following Verses: The first verse
describes the situation of hypocrites and the nonbelievers: "Allâh will
throw back their mockery on them, and Madd them (give them rope) in
their trespasses; so they will wander like blind ones (to and fro)."
(Surat Al-Baqarah No. 1, verse 15). In a
second verse, "But their brethren (the evil ones) Madd them (plunge
them deeper) into error, and never relax (their efforts)." (Surat Al-A’raf
No. 7, verse 202). In another verse,
"Say: "If any men go astray, (Allâh) Most Gracious Madd
(extends the rope) to them. Until, when they see the warning of Allâh (being
fulfilled) - either in punishment or in (the approach of) the Hour, - they will
at length realise who is worst in position, and (who) weaker in forces!"
(Maryam No. 19, verse 75). And the verses: "Nay!
We shall record what he says, and We shall Madd to his punishment."
(Maryam No. 19, verse 79). Allâh will
add and add to his punishment at the Day of Judgment; due to his Disbelieve. In another
context, "If any think that Allâh will
not help him (His Messenger) in this world and the Hereafter, let him Madd
(stretch out a rope) to the ceiling and cut (himself) off: then let him see
whether his plan will remove that which enrages (him)!." (Al-Hajj No. 22,
verse 15) (Ibn Katheer, 1994, part III: 283).
Other verses include the word Madd
with various meanings. For example:
1- "Remember thou saidst
to the Faithful: "Is it not enough for you that Allâh should Madd
(help) you with three thousand angels (specially) sent?" (Al-i-Imran No.
3, verse 124).
The support of Moslems by
Angels in the Ghazwah (Battle guided and directed by the Prophet)
of Badder: "Remember ye implored the assistance of your Lord, and He
answered you: I will Madd (assist) you with a thousand of the angels,
ranks on ranks.") (Al-Anfal No. 8, verse 9).
2- "Then did We grant you
the Return as against them: We gave you Madd (increase) in resources and
sons, and made you the more numerous in man-power." (Al-Israa No. 17,
verse 6).
3- "Of the bounties of thy
Lord We Madd (bestow freely on) all these as well as those: the bounties
of thy Lord are not closed (to anyone)".
(Al-Israa No. 17, verse 20).
4- "Yea, fear Him Who has Madd
(bestowed on) you freely all that ye know.
Freely has He Madd (bestowed on) you cattle and sons"
(Ash-shu’araa No. 26, verse 132-133).
5- "And We shall Madd
(bestow on) them, of fruit and meat, anything they shall desire." (At-Tur
No. 52, verse 22) (Ibn Katheer, Part IV: 310).
6- "To whom I granted resources
Mamdoada." (Al-Muddaththir No. 74, verse 12). Mamdoada: In abundance and very wide (Ibn
Katheer, Part IV: 569).
7- "And if all the trees
on the Ardh (Earth) were pens and the Ocean (were ink), with seven
Oceans behind it to Madd (add to its supply), yet would not the Words of
Allâh be exhausted (in the writing): for Allâh is exalted in power, full of
Wisdom." (Luqman No. 31, verse 27).
In this verse, the number seven is mentioned to give the meaning
of exaggeration not limitation (Ibn Katheer, Part III: 596). Within this context, "Say: If the ocean
were Medad (ink) wherewith to write out the words of my Lord, Sooner
would the ocean be exhausted than would the words of my Lord, even if we added
another ocean like it, for its Madada (aid)." (Al-Kahf No. 18,
verse 109).
8- "Hast thou not turned
thy vision to thy Lord? How He doth Madd (prolong) the Shadow! If He
willed, He could make it stationary! Then do We make the sun its guide"
(Al-Furqan No. 25, verse 45). How He
doth Madd the Shadow: That is between dawn and sun rise. Stationary: permanent (Ibn
Katheer, Part III: 427). The same meaning is made
clear by Prophet Mohammed, May Allâh’s blessings and peace be upon him, who
said: "In Paradise, there is a tree where the individual walks under its
shade for one century and read if you like 'In
shade Mamdoad (long-extended)'." (Al-Waqi’a No. 56, verse 30)
(Ibn Katheer, Part IV: 370 - 371).
I.
2: The Madd of Earth in Qur’anic Verses
Madd
means: To spread out, to inflate, increase the surface area (Ibn
Katheer, Part II: 657). Madd can refer to the process of
accretion resulting in formation of the earth. These meanings are clearly indicated in the
verses:
1- "And it is He (Allâh) who Madd the Ardh (Earth),
and set thereon fixing mountains standing firm, and (flowing) rivers: and fruit
of every kind He made in pairs, two and two: He draweth the Night as a veil
O'er the Day. Behold, verily in these things there are Signs for those who
consider!" (Ar-Ra’d No. 13, verse 3).
2- "And the Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it; set thereon
mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due
balance." (Al-Hijr No. 15, verse 19).
Allâh mentions the creation of
Earth, and the mass accretion flow which results in Earth's formation. Also Allâh mentions the inflation and
smoothing of Earth's surface (where it’s shape is spherical) (Ibn
Katheer, Part II: 723).
3- "And the Ardh (Earth); We have Madd it, and set
thereon fixing mountains standing firm, and produced therein every kind of
beautiful growth (in pairs)" (Qaf No. 50, verse 7). Allâh has enlarged and spread out the Earth (Ibn
Katheer, Part IV: 284).
4- "And When the Ardh (Earth) is Madd
* And casts forth what is within it and becomes -clean- empty." (Surat
Al-Inshiqaq No. 84 verse 3-4). Madd:
Spread out, inflated, have an increased surface area, earth will cast forth its
internal metals, and its interior becomes empty
(Ibn
Katheer, Part IV: 629; al-Tabri, Ibn Jareer,
1995, XV: 142; al-Qurtubi,
1996, Part XIX: 177-178). Eighteen hundred years ago, al-Razi has explained this verse. He says: “One
has to know that increasing the area of the earth is a must, whether through
inflation or accretion” (al-Razi, 1995, XVI: Part 31: 105).
I. 3: Dah’o in Arabic
Language (Ibn al-Manzur: IV: 303-04; XI: 110)
Dah’o:
a noun, the verb is daha. Allâh daha
al-ardh”: leveled the earth and enlarged it to meet the increasing
number of inhabitants, and made it fertile: "And the Ardh (Earth),
later on, hath He daha * He draweth out therefrom its water and its
pasture." (Surah No. 79 Verses: 30-31).
Ibn Barri says: Daha al-ardh
(Allâh pushed and threw the earth; causing it to move). It moves away from the sun as it gains
kinetic energy. Allâh Daha the
earth until it became leveled and stable; then the mountains were constructed
and anchored on it. In a saying by Ali bin abi Taleb, “O God! Dahi al-madh’wat”
(leveling and enlarging of Ardhean (plural of ardh)
is carried out by God.) Also a derived noun from
daha is idheyah (the Ostrich’s nest in the sand where she lays
its eggs). The ostrich is known to push and kick the sand by her feet and then
she lays eggs in a place where she hatches the eggs and the kittens stay in
that idheyah. In ibn Omar’s narrative, “daha al-saiyel in
the desert” means (to throw, push and cause the water
to run and move.)
Ibn al-Musaiyab was asked about
dah’o by stones: He replied, “it’s Ok”. And it means to have a
competition to show the winner in throwing of stones. In an earlier context, “The rain daha
pebbles from the surface of the earth”: (takes the pebbles away with it). It’s
also a characteristic of the rain to push away small stones and pieces of rock. Ibn al-Manzur, pointed
that it is said to the player of nuts, who daha
nuts (throws them), to move the
goal further away from him and make daho of nuts.
Moreover, abi Rafe’ said that
he used to entertain al-Hassan and al-Hussain by playing with madahi;
stones like circular loaves. The Arabs used to make holes in the ground
and dahou these stones; the player throws into the hole the stones,
nuts, etc. The derivative noun, medhah
means a piece of log used by a boy to push and sweep away everything comes in
its way on the ground. Moreover, Mecca residents play medhah (small
circular pebbles like loaves to be thrown into holes particularly made for such
game).
In another context, the horse daha
(hops by raising its front hooves a little bit from the ground). Not only a
horse daha but also a camel daha (making like hunters holes while
laying on the ground). The word daha also is referred to humans. A man
sleeps and daha (lie comfortably).
But a man daha a woman (marries her). The noun daho’ is used to refer to
someone who has a belly. The word dahyah is also used to mean the leader
of a group of soldiers. This leader is qualified and privileged by the boss in
front of the commander who has all the privileges.
Thus the Arabic word daho can mean: Pushing, throwing, and causing
to move. It means to make levelly; with
smooth even surface; like a spherical surface with large radius. It means to enlarge, extend, to inflate. For Earth, it also means to draw out
therefrom its water and its pasture; making it fertile and suitable for life.
God created and constructed Sama (firmaments: forming upper part of
universe) and Ardh (interior part of universe) in six periods. Later on, stars and galaxies are formed (Omari, 2002; Omari, 2004): "So He completed them seven Samawat
(plural of Sama: Firmaments) In two periods, and He assigned to each Sama its duty and command. And We adorned the lower Sama with lights, and (provide it) with
guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) The
exalted in Might, full of knowledge." (Surat Fussilat No. 41, verse
12).
I.
4: Meanings of Sama and Ardh in Qur'an
Meanings of Sama: One of the meanings is absolute
highness: "Do you feel secure that He, Who is
over the Sama (Allâh), will not cause the earth to sink with you, then
behold it shakes (as in an earthquake)?" (Al-Mulk 67:16). Another meaning is just
highness: "Verily! We have seen the turning of
your (Muhammad's) face towards the Sama. Surely, We shall turn you to a
Qiblah (prayer direction) that shall please you." (Al-Baqarah 2:144). In some verses it means a canopy of seven
Firmaments: "Who has made the Ardh (earth)
a resting place for you, and the Sama as a canopy" (Al-Baqarah
2:22).
In another usage, it indicates clouds: "Or like a rainstorm from the Sama (clouds),
wherein is darkness, thunder, and lightning" (Al-Baqarah 2:19). More over, meanings include rain from clouds:
"And We poured out on them the Sama (rain from the clouds) in abundance, and made the rivers
flow under them" (Al-An'am 6:6). In
some context, it reveals earths Atmosphere: "Allâh is He Who sends the winds, so they raise clouds,
and spread them along the Sama as He wills" (Ar-Rum
30:48).
Finally, it means the solar system: "Verily! We have adorned
the near Sama with the planets (for beauty)." (As-Saffat 37:6). Also
the word Sama as mentioned in some Hadiths can mean: stars; galaxies and
clusters.
Meanings of Ardh: One of the meanings is earth: "Who has
made the Ardh (Earth) for you like a bed
(spread out); and has opened roads (ways and paths etc.) for you therein; and
has sent water (rain) from the Sama. And We have brought forth with it
various kinds of vegetation" (Ta-Ha 20:53). Another meaning is land: "See you not that Allâh
sends down water (rain) from the Sama (clouds), and then the Ardh (Land) becomes green?
Verily, Allâh is the Most Kind and Courteous, Well-Acquainted with all things"
(Al-Hajj 22:63). One of the most
indications of Ardh is seven Ardhean
(plural of Ardh: The interior and lower part of the Universe) (Omari, 2004; Omari, 2004): "He it is Who
created for you all that is in coupled Seven Ardhean. Then He Istawâ towards the Sama
(highness) and give order and perfection to the seven Samawat (plural of
Sama: canopy) and He is the All-Knower of everything" (Al-Baqarah
2:29). Also the verse: "They made not a just
estimate of Allâh such as is due to Him. And on the Day of Resurrection the
whole of the Ardh
(Seven
Ardhean) will be grasped by His Hand. And the Samawat (plural of Sama: canopy) will be rolled
up in His Right Hand. Glorified is He, and High is He above all that they
associate as partners with Him!" (Az-Zumar 39:67). One
of the meanings is Paradise:
"And they will say: All the praises and thanks
be to Allâh Who has fulfilled His Promise to us and has made us inherit the Ardh
(Paradise). We can dwell in Paradise
where we will; how excellent a reward for the (pious good) workers!"
(Az-Zumar 39:74). Also the word Ardh can mean a
field, and a part of the land. In
Arabic, the lower part of anything is called ardh. For example, the ardh of a vehicle, room
and so on is its floor.
I.
5: Al-Sahirah in Arabic Language
ALLAH says: "When,
behold, they find themselves over Al-Sahirah alive
after their death" (An-Nazi'at 79:14). Al-Sahirah
is the “white” earth; it is a specific area in Sham (Qurtubi, 1996, Part XIX:
130). In Lissan al-Arab, (The Rhetoric of the Arabs), sahur means
tiredness and insomnia. “A night saher”
denotes being unable to sleep and feeling very tired. In another context, the night is described of
being saher shows that it is very long and expanding. The derivative sahruh reveals the land
which no one walks through; the land that is renewed by Allâh on the Day of
Judgment. In another derivative, sahiruh
means the surface of the earth. In the adjective of sahiruh for water,
it denotes its flowing day and night (Ibn
al-Manzur, VI: 409). The above explained Arabic words will be used to replace
their inaccurate and insufficient translations.
II. The Formation of Earth
(http://www.parssky.net/news/archive/news.asp?NewsID=459&NewsTitle=Exposing%20Sun%20and%20Earth%20formation%20scenario;http://zebu.uoregon.edu/ph121/l7.
html)
Scientific evidence indicates
that the universe began around (8 billion-16 billion years ago)
from a giant explosion called the big bang
(http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/html/age.html ).
Allâh says: "Moreover, He comprehended in His design the Sama
(upper part of
universe), and it had been smoke: He said to
it and to Ardh (the lower; interior; part of the Universe): 'Come ye,
willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come, in willing obedience'."
(Surah 41, Verse 11). At early stages,
the Universe was hot and opaque as indicated by the verse: "and it had
been smoke".
The consequence of creation
events is given by the Verse: "What! Are ye the more difficult to create
or the Sama? (Allâh) hath constructed it * On high hath He raised its
canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection. * Its night doth He endow
with darkness, and its splendour doth He bring out." (Surah No. 79 Verses:
27-29). Right after the Big bang, Allâh
has created Sama (Canopy, Firmaments) and Ardhean (lower part of
universe) in six periods. Ardhean's
creation is completed in two periods. By
the end of the fourth period, God created plenty of matter on the top most part
of Ardhean. By the end of the
sixth period, the seven distinct and thermally decoupled Samawat
(Firmaments) are given order and perfection.
Later on, galaxies, stars, Sun, and Earth are created (Figure):
Its splendour doth He bring out (with sun light) ([1]). And the Earth, after that, Hath He
extended. He draweth out therefrom its
water And its pasture. This creation
order is consistent with Ages predicted for Universe, sun, and Earth: The universe is about 15 billion years old
(Zeilik, 1994, 140; 443), while the sun is 5
billions (Zeilik, 289). The earths crust
has formed about 4.5-4.6 billion years ago (Zeilik, 156; http://www. cas.muohio.edu/~mbiws/changethrutime/earthformationpage.htm).
Out of this big bang explosion
was born mostly hydrogen and helium atoms with a scant amount of lithium:
"Do not the Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Sama)
and the Ardh were Ratq (joined, coupled), before We Fatq
(clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).
The
Arabic word (Ratq), implies that at early
stages of Universe, matter used to have smeared and continuous mass
distribution, and both matter and radiation were coupled together. Later on, God clove them asunder (Fatq):
Implying that matter had started clumping and holding together to help forming
galaxies.
The universe became transparent, and matter is no more coupled to
radiation. Consequently Sama
(Upper part of Universe) and Ardh (Interior part of Universe) are
decoupled; each into seven distinct and probably concentric spherical
shells. The seven Ardhean (plural of Ardh)
mentioned by authentic hadiths (Prophet's sayings) are more likely seven distinct
concentric spherical levels. It is
possible that galaxies and clusters of galaxies are distributed over Ardhean. As such, Ardhean contain a major part
of the cosmic dark matter that supports forming gravitationally bounded
galaxies and clusters ([2]).
The radius of the Universe is
large even at early times after the Big Bang explosion occurred in the core of
a tremendously large amount of material (Zeilik, 1994, 496). Consistent with Qur’an, theoreticians believe
that inflation is a good model. Qur’an
indicates that the universe starts vast and will remain expanding until the Day
of Judgment (Omari, 2002):
"We have built The Sama - Firmament - with might. And We indeed Have vast power; to expand it *
And We have spread out Ardh - interior part of the Universe, or Earth -
: How excellently We do spread out!" (Surah No. 51, verse 47- 48).
"And We indeed
Have vast power; to expand it".
This interprets as: ALLAH constructs
Sama via expansion ([3]). ALLAH create and elevate Sama with vast force and power, and We (ALLAH) are able to expand it as We
desire ([4]). We are able to expand, as We expand its
construction ([5]).
After the creation of the seven
Samawat (firmaments) and seven Ardhean, God created stars and
galaxies (Omari, 2004). Some of the matter of the expanding universe
clumped together to form stars
(there are billions in the Milky Way galaxy): "So
He completed them as seven Samawat (firmaments) in two Days and He
assigned to each Sama its duty and command. And We adorned the lower Sama with
lights (stars and galaxies), and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in
Might, Full of Knowledge." (Surah 41, verse 12).
Nuclear fusion
reactions occur in the stars, where heavy elements were born in a process called nucleosynthesis. The nuclear fusion reactions
in these stars gave rise to heavy elements (Figure; Figure). In the process of a
supernova, chemical elements up to and surpassing iron are synthesized (Clark,
1998, pp. 158- 159; Phillips, 1994, pp. 25-28).
Approximately 5 billion years ago, one of the aging stars in the Milky Way galaxy "exploded", sending a cloud of matter into the galaxy (Figure). Most of the lighter elements (hydrogen and helium) rejoined to
form our sun, while the heavier elements formed a flattened disk of matter that
orbited the newly born star (Swihart, 1992, page 119; Dormand, 1989 p. 36; http://www.cas.muohio.edu/~mbiws/
changethrutime/earthformationpage.htm).
Atomic and subatomic particles are referred to by God’s saying: "Nor
is hidden from the Lord so much as the weight of an atom on the Ardh or
in Sama, And not the subatomic nor the greater." (Surat Yunus No.
10, verse 61). "From whom (the
Lord) is not hidden the least little atom in the Samawat or on the Ardh:
Nor is there anything less than that (subatomic), or greater." (Surat Saba
No. 34, verse 3).
Over time (more than 100
million years) this disk of matter began clumping together in a process called collisional
accumulation to form larger aggregates of matter
(Figure).
As the size and gravitational pull increased, the stellar debris clumped into
millions of planetesimals, which grew into a
much smaller number of planetoids, which eventually grew into the nine planets
of the solar system,
their moons, and a host of other solar system materials (Swihart, 1992, p.
119): "We have indeed decked the lower Sama
(Solar system) with beauty (in) the planets." (Surah No. 37, verse 6). Among other things, the growth into a much
smaller number of planetoids is indicated by the verse: "Do not the
Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Sama) and the Ardh
were Ratq (joined, coupled: Figure),
before We Fatq (clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30). However, it is
more obvious that the meaning here of Ardh
is seven Ardhean; the interior part of the universe, rather than Earth (Omari, 2004; Omari, 2004).
III. Earth’s Madd
The
primordial planet Earth grew out of bits of gas and dust, aggregating over time
into a larger, more solid body (http://www.cas.muohio.edu/~mbiws/
changethrutime/earthformationpage.htm.). Qur’an says: "And the Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it."
(Surah No. 50, verse 7; Surah No. 15, verse 19).
"And it is He (Allâh) who
Madd the Ardh (Earth)." (Surah No. 13, verse 3). Earth is formed via acretion of grains in a 4-step process (http://zebu.uoregon.edu/internet/l2.html):
Where “Ardh
(Earth) We have Madd it” can mean the primordial
planet Earth grew out of bits of gas and dust, aggregating over time into Earth. The young Earth
formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The
age of the Earth has been determined by radioactive dating
techniques.
"What! Are ye the more
difficult to create or the Sama (Firmaments)? (Allâh) hath constructed
it * On high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and
perfection. * Its night doth He endow with darkness, and its splendour doth He
bring out (with sun light). And the Ardh
(Earth), later on, Hath He daha * He draweth out Therefrom its water and
its pasture * And the mountains Hath He firmly fixed." (Surah No. 79,
verses: 27-32).
God created and constructed Sama and Ardh (interior part on
universe) in six periods. Later on,
galaxies and stars are created (Omari, 2004; Omari, 2004).
A supernova explosion causes Iron to be
ejected and carried out of the star, and higher mass elements to be
produced. This is necessary to start a
new solar system having life, as our solar system (Iron Inzal).
After the creation of the sun,
Allâh made Daho for earth. The Arabic word daha (v.), daho (n.) can mean: Pushing, throwing, and
causing to move. It means to make
levelly; with smooth even surface; like a spherical surface with large radius. It means to enlarge, extend, to inflate. For Earth, it also means to draw out
therefrom its water and its pasture; i.e. make fertile and suitable for life. This meaning is obvious in the following
verse:
"And the Ardh
(Earth), later on, Hath He daha * He draweth out Therefrom its water and
its pasture * And the mountains Hath He firmly fixed". Finally, earth cools with the extraction of
it’s water, and mountais are formed: "And the mountains Hath He firmly
fixed." (Sura No. 27, verses 53-56).
Liquid water appeared on the
Earth's surface starting around 4 billion years ago. We know this from the
evidence of sedimentary rocks (which require water to form) that have been
found in the Isukasia Region of Greenland that date to over 3.8 billion years
old, and gneiss from the Canadian Shield of the Northwest Territories near
Great Slave Lake that date to 3.96 billion years old. This is consistent with the following
verse:
"And the Ardh
(Earth), later on, Hath He Daha * He draweth out Therefrom its water and
its pasture * And the mountains Hath He firmly fixed." (Surah No. 79,
verses: 30-32).
For the first 600 million
years, the Earth's surface was too hot for liquid water to have existed on the
surface. Water vapor was released from the abundance of volcanoes, from comets
(composed largely of ice and organic compounds), and meteors (also possessing
organic compounds).
As the water vapor condensed, fell to the Earth's
surface, and was vaporized by the hot surface temperatures, the water was
cycled back into the atmosphere. This
water cycle lasted for over 600 million years.
From the constant cycling of this slightly acidic water, small pools and
ponds began forming on the continental crust. As the runoff from the granitic
continental crust eroded away minerals and salts, they were carried into the
oceans and seas, where we now have a 3% salt solution in our oceans. Allâh says: "For that We (again and
again) pour forth Water in abundance." (Surah No. 80, verse 25): Water was
recycled into the atmosphere, and repeatedly sent back to earth.
III. 1: Bombardment of Earth by
Planetoids
Earth was repeatedly bombarded
by large planetoids (Figure),
which supplies the earth and adds to its constituents, as Qur’an indicates: "And the Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it."
(Surah No. 50 verse 7; Surah No. 15 verse 19). In another verse, "And it is He (Allâh) who Madd the Ardh
(Earth)" (Surah No. 13 verse 3).
Livermore's
findings agree with similar, lower-pressure studies that have melted meteorites
and iron -nickel-sulfur- oxygen mixtures and failed to wet the silicate
minerals. Together, these experiments indicate that much higher temperatures
were required to separate the Earth's core and mantle--temperatures high enough
to melt most of the Earth (http://www.llnl.gov/str/Minarik.html
). All of these data lend credence to
the theory that the young, growing Earth was repeatedly bombarded by large
planetoids, with some of these collisions generating temperatures high enough
to form a magma ocean from which drops of dense molten metal separated (Figure).
The largest collision may have been when a large celestial body, about the size
of Mars, collided with Earth nearly 4.5 billion years ago, melting most of it
and causing the core and mantle to separate: "Do not the Unbelievers see
that the Samawat (plural of Sama)
and the Ardh were Ratq (joined, coupled), before We Fatq
(clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30).
Obviously,
here the meaning of Ardh
is more likely seven Ardhean; the interior part of the universe. However, it is possible that Ardh means
Earth (Omari, 2004; Omari, 2004). Consistent
with this verse, now the Earth has four distinct layers
plus the atmosphere, one on top of the other (Fig.: Earth's layers). From inside out we have: 1- The inner core
composed of solid, crystalline iron and nickel; as Qur'an indicates (Omari: Arabic; English):
"And Anzalna Al-Hadid (Iron), in which is Great might, as
well as many benefits for mankind." (Surat Al-Hadid (Iron) No. 57, verse 25). 2-
The outer core, which is a liquid layer made of molten iron, oxygen, and sulfur
compounds. 3- The mantle,
which is a molten, quasi-liquid
layer made up of silicon, aluminum,
and magnesium oxides. 4- The crust,
composed of lighter elements; mostly silicon and lighter mantle compounds;
above the mantle. The crust is composed
of two distinct parts - the continental crust, which is made up of low-density
granitic rocks such as quartz and feldspar that "float" on top of the
mantle, and the oceanic crust, which is the earth below the oceans; composed of
basaltic rocks rich in elements from the mantle. 5-
And the atmosphere, that is composed of variety of gases (nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, argon, etc.), which have changed throughout Earth's history.
Heat
in the Earth's Core
The changing thickness of the
earth's crust indicates a constant cooling, showing that the heat was created
at the beginning of the earth's formation.
About a billion years ago, all of the continents had come together
forming a large super continent called Pangaea (Pangaea). Now, the Earth is composed of distinct
continents. This is indicated by the
Qur’anic verse: "Do not the Unbelievers see that the Samawat (plural of Sama)
and the Ardh were Ratq (joined, coupled), before We Fatq
(clove asunder, decoupled) them?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 30). Here Ardh
is more likely to mean seven Ardhean; the interior part of the universe
(Omari, 2004). However, it could mean Earth as well. There
were no mountains at that time. An "ice age" caused the whole land
mass to be covered with ice destroying all terrestrial life. The absence of
mountains means the tectonic plates were very thin and light. If they were as
thick and heavy as modern plates, they would have buckled and slid over and
under each other as they collided to form Pangaea, and mountains would have
been the result. Since the plates were thin and light, they just welded
together as they collided: "And the Ardh (Earth),
later on, Hath He Daha * He draweth out Therefrom its water and its
pasture * And the mountains Hath He firmly fixed." (Surah No. 79 Verses:
30-32). The extraction of water from the
interior part of earth has contributes to cooling, which in turn speeds
mountains formation. For example, a
significant earthquake occurred in central South Dakota in 1983. Earthquakes
were supposed to be impossible in the area, because there is supposedly one continuous sheet of
granite under the entire state. Earth quakes are caused by two plates sliding
past each other. It means there are two plates which fit together so precisely
that they look like one. This conclusion is reinforced by the fact that there
are two very distinct soil types above each plate. Loam sits over the east
river plate, and a heavy gumbo sits over the west river plate. So the tectonic plates were thin and light in earlier times, and
now they are getting thick and heavy. This means the earth is losing heat, and
the heat in the earth's core must have been there at the beginning of the
earth's creation. The heat apparently resulted from small particles gravitating
toward a center, and the process of colliding and compressing created
heat. This is indicated by the Verses: "And the
Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it; set thereon fixing firm
Mountains." (Surah No. 50 verse 7; Surah No. 15 verse 19); and the verse
"and it is He (Allâh) who Madd the Ardh (Earth); set thereon
fixing firm Mountains."
(Surah No. 13, verse 3).
It is mentioned that primordial planet Earth grew out of
bits of gas and dust, aggregating and accreting over time. Also the verse can be referring to earth’s
spherical shape; which makes human life easy.
Also the word Madd can indicate inflation and increased earth’s
surface area; which increase the cooling rate and consequently speeds mountains
formation:
"See they not that We gradually reduce Ardh (the land) from its
outlying border? (Where) Allâh commands, there is none to put back His command:
and He is Swift in calling to account." (Surat
Ar-Ra’d no.13, verse 41). In another verse,
"Nay, We gave the good things of this life to these men and their fathers
until the period grew long for them; see they not that We gradually reduce the Ardh
(Earth, land) from its outlying borders? Is it then they who will win?"
(Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 44).
Among various meanings, the preceding two verses are likely referring to
the process of internal compression that accompanies Earths cooling.
Additional evidence is in the observation that planets which are farther
away from the sun are losing heat faster than they are acquiring it from the
sun. They apparently acquired their heat during their creation. Heat in the core of planets cannot be
entirely due to nuclear reactions, because that source would require a gradual
build-up rather than a gradual loss of heat.
IV. Day of Judgment
IV. 1: Time Contraction Just Before
the Day of Judgment
As earth gets close to sun, the length of the year will be reduced; as
Kepler’s third law indicates (Figure): The path of a planet around the
sun is an ellipse, with the square of its sidereal period being proportional to
the cube of the semi major axis. The
contraction of the year is indicated by the Prophet Mohammed Hadith, may the
blessing of Allâh and peace be upon him.
He has made it clear that the Day of Judgment will follow a universal
and solar system changes: "The Day of Judgment will not be until time
becomes lesser and lesser; when the year becomes as a month; the month becomes
as a week; the week becomes as a day; and a day becomes as an hour, and the
hour becomes like the striking of a match" (al-Albani, Saheeh al-Jama’,
7; Mishkat al-Masabeeh: 5376).
Kepler’s third rule states, 
, where 
is the semi-major axis, and 
is Earth’s
sidereal period (Figure).
According
to Kepler’s Law, the statement "The year becomes as a month"
indicates that the sidereal period of earth (the time it takes to complete one
revolution around the sun relative to the stars) decreases to 0.083 of its
present value; 365.26 days. The
semi-major axis will be reduced by the factor 
. With furthermore reduction in earth-sun
separation, the day will become very long; synchronous rotation: synchronous rotation is a planetological term describing a body orbiting another (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit), where the orbiting body takes as
long to rotate on its axis as it does to make one orbit; and therefore always
keeps the same hemisphere pointed at the body it is orbiting. Another way of
describing it is that from the surface of the satellite, the main planet
appears to be locked in place in the sky as it slowly rotates.
The Moon is in
synchronous rotation about the Earth. In fact, most major moons in the solar
system have synchronous rotation due to Tidal locking. Tidal locking occurs when the gravitational gradient makes one side of an astronomical
body always face another; for example, one side of the Earth's Moon
always faces the Earth. A tidally locked body takes just as long to rotate
around its own axis as it does to revolve around its partner. This synchronous
rotation
causes one hemisphere constantly to face the partner body.
Also, the statement "The month becomes
as a week", implies that the time moon takes to complete one revolution around the earth is reduced
by a factor 0.237. According to Kepler’s
third rule, the distance between the moon and Earth is reduced by the factor 
. According to Qur'an, both sun and moon will
be joined: "And the sun
and moon Are joined together." (Al-Qiyamat No. 75, verse 9).
In Prophet's previous hadith,
the statements: "The Day of Judgment won’t be seen until the earth becomes
very close to the sun" and "a week becomes like a day" indicates
an increase in the earth’s rotational velocity, as the sun and the moon get
close to earth. This can happen, where
part of the gravitational potential energy will be converted into rotational
kinetic energy.
IV. 2: Grouping and Joining and the Search for
Forgiveness
On the
Day of Judgment, the sun will become extremely close to earth. There are a number of the
Prophet’s hadith (sayings) that confirm this matter. Here is one just as evidence: Prophet
Mohammed, may the blessings of Allâh and peace be upon him, said: (The sun
comes closer until the sweat covers half of the individual’s ear. On the Day of Judgment, people call Adam for
intercession and Adam answers them saying that "I’m not the qualified for
this matter". Then they call Mosses
who answers them the same as Adam does…
And they finally call Mohammed, may the blessings of Allâh and peace be
upon him). Abdullah, one of the
Prophet's companions, added: "Mohammed intercedes for the people and walks
until he opens the door of Paradise (Eden), where he will be honored and
granted the most praised locus when all people praise him" (Saheeh
al-Bukhari; Al-Jama’ as-Saheeh 1474). There are many Hadiths that confirm: Crowdedness, closeness of the sun at the
Day of Judgment, and emphasize that Mohammed is the only
one eligible to intercede for the people and seek Allâh's Forgiveness ([6]).
(Narrated Abu Huraira: Some
(cooked) meat was brought to Allah Apostle and the meat of a forearm was
presented to him as he used to like it. He ate a morsel of it and said, "I
will be the chief of all the people on the Day of Resurrection. Do you know the
reason for it? Allah will gather all the human being of early generations as
well as late generation on one place so that the announcer will be able to make
them all-hear his voice and the watcher will be able to see all of them. The sun will come so close to the people that they will
suffer such distress and trouble as they will not be able to bear or stand.
Then the people will say, 'Don't you see to what state you have reached? Won't
you look for someone who can intercede for you with your Lord' Some people will
say to some others, 'Go to Adam.' So they will go to Adam and say to him. 'You
are the father of mankind; Allah created you with His Own Hand, and breathed
into you of His Spirit (meaning the spirit which he created for you); and
ordered the angels to prostrate before you; so (please) intercede for us with
your Lord. Don't you see in what state we are? Don't you see what condition we
have reached?' Adam will say, 'Today my Lord has become angry as He has never
become before, nor will ever become thereafter. He forbade me (to eat of the
fruit of) the tree, but I disobeyed Him . Myself! Myself! Myself! (has more
need for intercession). Go to someone else; go to Noah.' So they will go to
Noah and say (to him), 'O Noah! You are the first (of Allah's Messengers) to
the people of the earth, and Allah has named you a thankful slave; please
intercede for us with your Lord. Don't you see in what state we are?' He will
say.' Today my Lord has become angry as He has never become nor will ever
become thereafter. I had (in the world) the right to make one definitely
accepted invocation, and I made it against my nation. Myself! Myself! Myself!
Go to someone else; go to Abraham.' They will go to Abraham and say, 'O
Abraham! You are Allah's Apostle and His Khalil from among the people of the
earth; so please intercede for us with your Lord. Don't you see in what state
we are?' He will say to them, 'My Lord has today become angry as He has never
become before, nor will ever become thereafter. I had told three lies (Abu
Haiyan (the sub-narrator) mentioned them in the Hadith) Myself! Myself! Myself!
Go to someone else; go to Moses.' The people will then go to Moses and say, 'O Moses!
You art Allah's Apostle and Allah gave you superiority above the others with
this message and with His direct Talk to you; (please) intercede for us with
your Lord Don't you see in what state we are?' Moses will say, 'My Lord has
today become angry as He has never become before, nor will become thereafter, I
killed a person whom I had not been ordered to kill. Myself! Myself! Myself! Go
to someone else; go to Jesus.' So they will go to Jesus and say, 'O Jesus! You
are Allah's Apostle and His Word which He sent to Mary, and a superior soul
created by Him, and you talked to the people while still young in the cradle.
Please intercede for us with your Lord. Don't you see in what state we are?'
Jesus will say. 'My Lord has today become angry as He has never become before
nor will ever become thereafter. Jesus will not mention any sin, but will say,
'Myself! Myself! Myself! Go to someone else; go to Muhammad.' So they will come
to me and say, 'O Muhammad ! You are Allah's Apostle and the last of the prophets,
and Allah forgave your early and late sins. (Please) intercede for us with your
Lord. Don't you see in what state we are?" The Prophet added, "Then I
will go beneath Allah's Throne and fall in prostration before my Lord. And then
Allah will guide me to such praises and glorification to Him as He has never
guided anybody else before me. Then it will be said, 'O Muhammad Raise your
head. Ask, and it will be granted. Intercede It (your intercession) will be
accepted.' So I will raise my head and Say, 'My followers, O my Lord! My
followers, O my Lord'. It will be said, 'O Muhammad! Let those of your
followers who have no accounts, enter through such a gate of the gates of
Paradise as lies on the right; and they will share the other gates with the
people." The Prophet further said, "By Him in Whose Hand my soul is,
the distance between every two gate-posts of Paradise is like the distance
between Mecca and Busra (in Sham)." ) ('Prophetic Commentary on the Quran
(Tafseer of the Prophet (pbuh))' of Sahih Bukhari.).
)الراوي: أبو
هريرة المحدث:
البخاري - المصدر:
صحيح البخاري
- الصفحة
أو الرقم: 4712، ،
[صحيح] )
(http://www.searchtruth.com/book_display.php?book=60&translator=1&start=227&number=227).
IV. 3: The Length of the Day of Judgment
The Glorious Qur'an confirmed that the
length of the Day of Judgment is 50,000 years: "The angels and the Spirit ascend
Unto Him in a Day The measure whereof Is fifty thousand years." (Surah No.
70, verse 4). For the nonbelievers, The Day of Judgment is fifty thousand years long ([7]) (fifty thousand years): "The angels and the Spirit ascend Unto Him in a Day The measure
whereof Is fifty thousand years." (Surah No. 70, verse 4). Surah No. 70; Verses 1-15; clearly address
and concentrate on the Day of Judgment (Ibn Katheer, IV:
538-41; Qurtubi,
1996, IX: Part 18: 185-86). The
length of the Day of Judgment has also been confirmed by many of the Prophet’s hadith
(sayings) ([8]). Citing one of these hadiths is
an appropriate evidence: Abu Hurairuh (a close companion to the Prophet)
narrated that the Prophet Mohammed, may the blessings of Allâh and peace be
upon him, had said that: (anyone having an amount of gold or silver but never
did pay the zakah (alms), will be tortured on the Day of Judgment by
these gold or silver, so that they’ll be heated in Hell and used to iron his
forehead, back and sides. Moreover, when
the gold or silver become colder, they’ll be heated again; "In a Day The measure whereof Is fifty thousand
years") (Surah No. 70, verse 4). For more Hadiths, see (fifty
thousand years).
Abu Sa’ed al-Khoudari (a close companion
to the Prophet) narrated that the Prophet Mohammed, may the blessings of Allâh
and peace be upon him, had been asked about the length of this day. The Prophet
answered: "It will be very short for the believer so that it won’t match
the duration which he had spent in performing a prayer during his
life". Abu Sa’ed al-Khoudari also
narrated that the Prophet had said: “The unbeliever will see the Day of
Judgment 50,000 years...”.
Indeed, most planets around
solar-type stars with separations of less than 0.15 AU have eccentricities less
than 0.05. Presumably, these planets rotate synchronously with their orbital
period (Bodenheimer et al., 2001).
QUR’AN and SUNNAH declare that the Day of Judgment has a length of
50,000 years. This implies that the
earth, at Day of Judgment, rotate synchronously with its orbital period around
the sun. This is due to the much reduced
separation between sun and earth. Therefore,
the same surface of the earth is always the one that stays in opposition to the
sun, as it is the case of the moon and the earth: From earth, the same side of
the moon is always observed, whereas the other is invisible (Parker, 1984, p. 157).
V: EXPANSION AND TIDAL INFLATION OF
EARTH
The introduction has shown the lexical
meanings to the word madd. In brief, madd means: Accretion and
inflation, expansion, enlargement, increase.
According to Shammur (Ibn
al-Manzur, XIII: 50-52), everything is filled and
increased its height denotes madd.
Also, QUR’AN and SUNNAH declare that the
Day of Judgment has a length of 50,000 years, as in the above cited and
documented hadiths. In the Qur'an
also: "The angels and the Spirit
ascend Unto Him in a Day The measure whereof is fifty thousand years."
(Surah No. 70, verse 4).
V.1
TIDAL INFLATION
The observational determination
of the orbital properties of extra solar planets (Marcy, et al., 2000) provides
a golden opportunity to understand the origin and evolution of planetary
systems. Perhaps the most surprising finding is the discovery of several
short-period planets, starting with the companion to 51 Peg (Mayor and Queloz,
1995). At its orbital separation (0.05 AU), star planet tidal interaction is
expected to be intense. Indeed, most planets around solar-type stars with
separations of less than 0.15 AU have eccentricities less than 0.05.
Presumably, these planets rotate synchronously with their orbital period.
Tidal inflation studies of
short-period extra solar planets (Bodenheimer et al., 2001) is consistent with
the description Qur’an gives for the early stages of Earth, and is also similar
to Earth’s situation at the Day of Judgment.
We are going to show that the basic physical principles are precisely
described by Qur’an. Bodenheimer et al.
(2001) have examined the consequences of tidal interaction between eccentric
short- period extra solar planets and their host stars and of secular
perturbations between planets in a given system.
They have applied their results to three systems with
short-period planets: HD 209458, Ups And, and Tau Boo.
If the planet is
within 0.05 AU of the star, the dissipation of the stellar tidal disturbance
within the planet provides a significant energy source, which causes the planet
to inflate as it adjusts to a thermal equilibrium. Bodenheimer
et al. (2001) have determined the planetary size as a function of the tidal
dissipation rate with or without the presence of a core. Inflation
intensifies the star-planet tidal interaction and accelerates the pace
(progress) of the planet’s spin synchronization and orbital circularization.
It has been mentioned by Qur’an
and Hadiths that the
measure of the Day of Judgment is fifty thousand years (fifty thousand
years). Also Hadiths emphasize the reduction in earth-sun separation, where Sun is going to be very close to Earth. Earth will be Madd: "And When the Ardh (Earth) is
Madd." (Surat
AL-Inshiqaq No. 84, verse 3). The physics being addressed by the verse has
been clarified explicitly by al-Razi; who sayas: “One
has to know that increasing the area of the earth is a must, whether through
inflation or accretion” (al-Razi, 1995, XVI: Part 31: 105).
On the Day of
Judgment, Earth will encounter cores ejection: "And casts forth what is within it and becomes
-clean- empty." (Surah 84, verse 4). Also Mountains will be destructed: "And
the mountains will move away with a (horrible) movement" (At-Tur
52:10). In another verse, "And the
mountains will be powdered to dust" (Al-Waqi'ah 56:5). Other happenings are: "And the
Ardh (Earth) and the mountains shall be removed from their places, and
crushed with a single crushing" (Al-Haqqah 69:14) and "And the
mountains will be like flakes of wool" (Al-Ma'arij 70:9). Moreover events are: "On the Day when the
Ardh (Earth) and the mountains will be in violent shake, and the
mountains will be a heap of sand poured out and flowing down"
(Al-Muzzammil 73:14).
Associated with orbital
evolution, the dissipation of the tidal disturbance within the short-period
planets leads to an energy source (Goldreich and Soter, 1966) in addition to
those arising from gravitational contraction and stellar irradiation. Bodenheimer et al. (2001) examine the
modification of the Planet’s internal structure and size as a consequence of
the tidal dissipation and discusses the observational implications: "And
when Ardh (the Earth) is Madd" (Surah 84, verse 3).
V.2. THE PLANET’S
STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT OWING TO INDUCED
HEATING (Bodenheimer et al., 2001)
There are two conventional
theories of the formation of Jovian-mass planets. The first involves
coagulation and accretion of small particles of ice and rock to form a solid
core (Safronov, 1969; Wetherill, 1980) followed by rapid accretion of gas from
the protoplanetary disk (Bodenheimer, 1986).
The second relies on gravitational instability in a gaseous protostellar disk
(Kuiper, 1951; Cameron, 1978; Boss, 1997), which produces a subcondensation
with composition close to that of the central star with little, if any, solid
core (Stevenson, 1982; Boss, 1998). Although the inferred presence of solid
cores in Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune (Hubbard, 1980; Wuchterl et al.,
2000) favors the first scenario in our solar system, there is as yet no
evidence for or against cores in extrasolar planetary systems. The theory applicable to our solar system is
consistent with the verses: "And the Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it." (Surah No. 50 Verse
7, Surah No. 15 Verse 19); "And it
is He (Allâh) who Madd the Ardh (Earth)." (Surah No. 13, verse 3); and "So verily I call to witness the planets that recede *
The runaway (planets) Konnas (sweepers)." (Surah No. 81, verses
15-16).
Among various implications, the
word Madd in the first two verses refers to coagulation and accretion of
small particles and gas. Also, the previous verse is most likely referring to runaway
planetisimals that orbits the protosun (Figure; Figure), and sweeps material within a certain radius from
the planetisimal (Clark, 1998, p. 89). The verse
uses the Arabic statement whose exact translation is "So verily, I swear by the planets that recede * The runaway
Konnas (sweepers)" (Surat At-Takwir verse 15-16). In both scenarios,
protogiant planets, after an initial hydrodynamic accretion phase, go through
an extended phase of quasi-hydrostatic contraction. The rate of contraction
slows down as the planet approaches an asymptotic final radius; at this point,
most of the energy liberated is the result of cooling of the interior. The quasi-hydrostatic contraction that
accompanies Earth's cooling is expressed by the two verses: "See they not
that We gradually reduce the Ardh (Earth, land) from its outlying
border? (Where) Allâh commands, there is none to put back His command: and He is
Swift in calling to account." (Surat Ar-Ra’d no.13, verse 41); and
the verse "Nay, We gave the good things of this life to these men and
their fathers until the period grew long for them; see they not that We
gradually reduce the Ardh (Earth, land) from its outlying borders? Is it
then they who will win?" (Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 44).
With helium being unlikely to
mix with metallic hydrogen, an additional release of energy
could result from the sinking of the helium toward the center (Smoluchowski,
1967; Salpeter, 1973; Stevenson, 1975).
In the Final
quasi-equilibrium state, the presence of a core, or of
any distribution of heavy elements in excess of the solar
abundance, increases the average density and reduces the
size of the planet (Bodenheimer et al., 2001). The core is mainly iron as indicated by the
word Anzalna in the verse (Omari: Arabic; Iron
Inzal):
"And Anzalna Al-Hadid (Iron), in which is Great might, as
well as many benefits for mankind." (Surat
Al-Hadid (Iron) No. 57, verse 25).
However, the presence of a
tidal heating source
can allow the planet to reach thermal equilibrium and
can also affect its size (Bodenheimer et al., 2001): The size is increased due
to extra energy received by planet; as the word Madd can imply: "And the Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it."
(Surah No. 50, Verse 7 and Surah No. 15, Verse 19). Also, "And it is He (Allâh) who Madd the Ardh (Earth)." (Surah No.
13, verse 3).
The core and tidal heating effects are
theoretically explored (Bodenheimer et al., 2001):
The determinations of planetary radii is relevant in light of the recent
spectroscopic discovery of a short-period planet around HD 209458 and the observed
photometric occultation of its host star (Henry
et al., 2000; Charbonneau et al., 2000), which has led to an estimate of its size.
V.3. Model
Parameters (Bodenheimer et al., 2001)
There are several previous
numerical calculations of the contraction of coreless protogiant planets in the
Jovian mass range (Saumon et al., 1996; Guillot et al., 1996; Burrows et al.,
1997). For calculations (Bodenheimer et
al., 2001), the sources of energy included are the following: Stellar radiation
incident on the planet, gravitational contraction of the envelope, and cooling
of the warm interior. Stellar radiation
incident on the planet is referred to by the following two verses: "And the Ardh (Earth) We have Madd it."
(Surah No., 50 Verse 7 and Surah No. 15, Verse 19). And the verse "And it is He (Allâh) who Madd the Ardh
(Earth)." (Surah No. 13, verse 3). The cooling of the warm interior is indicated
by the verse: "And the ardh (earth), later on, Hath He Daha
(extended to a wide expanse) * He draweth out Therefrom its water and its
pasture * And the mountains Hath He firmly fixed." (Surah No. 79, verses:
30-32). The extraction of earths
interior water had contributed to its cooling.
This leads to mountains formation.
The gravitational contraction of the envelope is indicated by the
following verses: "See they not that We gradually reduce the Ardh
(Earth, Land) from its outlying border?" (Surat Ar-Ra’d no.13, verse 41); and "We
gradually reduce the Ardh (Earth, Land) from its outlying borders?"
(Surat Al-Anbiyaa No. 21, verse 44).
Four sets of evolutionary models
are presented (Bodenheimer et al., 2001).
For the first two sets: Figure-1: A and
B, they have used the orbital parameters derived for the planet around HD
209458 by adopting a planetary mass (Mp) of 0.63 Jupiter masses (MJ)
in accordance with its observationally determined value (Henry et al., 2000;
Charbonneau et al., 2000). Sets A and B
correspond to models with and without a core, respectively. The calculations
cover the history of the planet from the time accretion is complete, about 4
Myr, to 4.5 Gyr. Although the planet may have migrated from its formation site
to its present orbital radius as a consequence of gravitational interactions
with the disk, they have assumed that the migration took place during the
formation phase. Allâh says: "And
the Ardh (Earth), later on, Hath He daha." (Surah No. 79
verse 30). Among various meanings, the
word daha in this verse may refer to earth’s migration; during the
formation phase; from its formation site to its present orbital radius. The word daha
also refers to extraction of Earth's interior water as Qur'an indicates: "And
the Ardh (Earth), later on, Hath He daha * He draweth out
Therefrom its water and its pasture." (Surah No. 79, verses: 30-31).
V.4.
Planetary Models with or without Cores: HD 209458
The layered structure of Earth
is strong evidence that Earth did melt in the past, so the denser matter could
sink to the bottom and the lighter stuff float toward the surface. The sinking of hot iron to the Earth’s core
would release additional thermal and gravitational potential energy, which
would go to the inside, not to the surface where it could be radiated away
(Swihart, 1992, p. 123): "And Anzalna
Al-Hadid (Iron), in which is Great might, as well as many benefits for
mankind." (Surat Al-Hadid (Iron) No.
57, verse 25) (Omari:
Arabic;
Iron Inzal).
In models A2 and B2, with
enhanced metallicity in the planetary envelope, the final radii are actually
very slightly larger than those in models A1 and B1. The
resulting increase in the mean density is more than compensated for in that the
enhanced grain opacity in the outer layers, corresponding to the increased
metal abundance, tends to increase the radius of a nearly fully convective
configuration. According to
Qur'an, earth will eject its core on the Day of Judgment. For more massive planets, Bodenheimer et al.
(2001) have constructed coreless models and obtained the variation of planetary
radius with the dissipation rate; see Figure 2.
For these three series of models, the lowest mass planet around HD
209458 is most sensitive to the additional internal heating because its
gravitational binding energy is the smallest.
VI.
The End of Earth
When
discussing the Hadith: "The Day of Judgment will not be
until time becomes lesser and lesser; when the year becomes as a month"
(al-Albani, Saheeh al-Jama’, 7; Mishkat al-Masabeeh: 5376), it's
mentioned that the earth-sun
separation becomes 
. As earth gets closer
to sun, the day will become extremely long (synchronous rotation).
Indeed, most planets around solar-type stars with
separations less than 
have eccentricities less
than 0.05. Presumably, these planets rotate synchronously with their orbital
period (Bodenheimer et al., 2001).
Qur’an and Sunnah declare that the Day of Judgment has a length of
50,000 years: "The
angels and the Spirit ascend Unto Him in a Day The measure whereof Is fifty
thousand years." (Surah No. 70, verse 4).
Also the verse: "When, behold, they find
themselves over Al-Sahirah alive
after their death" (An-Nazi'at 79:14).
For the day hereafter, the physical processes are the reversal to
creation steps. Earth will be very
close to the sun. Mountains will be
destroyed and erased. Earth's excess temperature increase leads to core ejection, which
allows heavy elements from the core to dissolve in the gas of the
envelope. The
ejection of the core increases metal abundance and radius as indicated by the
verses: "And
When the Ardh (Earth) is Madd * And casts forth what is within it And
becomes (clean) empty." (Surat AL-Inshiqaq No. 84, verse 3-4). It casts forth its internal metals, and
its interior becomes empty (Qurtubi,
1996, X: Part 19: 177-178). Cores ejection will convert part of the gravitational
binding energy into thermal. Also cores
internal heat energy will be liberated to the surface, which leads to
furthermore inflation.
Earth gets so close to the
Sun. The additional energy received from
the sun indeed leads to inflation. Also
dissipative heating will increase due to increased metal abundance at Earth's
surface. The day hereafter, a relatively
larger inflation will occur for planets that earned a metallic core in the
processes of their creation; like Earth.
This is clearly understood from the verse: "And when the Ardh
(Earth) is madd * And casts forth what is within it and becomes -clean-
empty." (Surah 84, verse 3-4). As earth gets madd,
it will be expanded, enlarged, increased and inflated. Therefore, the place for the gathering of all
people on the Day of Judgment will have no low or high land. There
will be no landmark for anyone ([9]).
For most of the models
presented (Bodenheimer et al., 2001), the distribution of the energy
dissipation is assumed to be directly proportional to the mass distribution
within the planetary envelope. On The
Day of Judgment, dissipation and whence inflation will be enhanced by the
addition of extra mass to earth's envelope; as Qur'an indicates: "And When
the Ardh (Earth) is Madd" (Surah 84, verse 3).
Finally, Ardh - interior part of the Universe - is also going to face its
fatal. It will become unable to
provide a gravitational support to galaxies.
It will be rolled up in Allâh's right hand (Omari, 2004): "No just estimate Have they made of Allâh, Such as is due to
Him: On the Day of Judgment The whole of Ardh - seven Ardhean: interior
part of the Universe; not earth - Will be but his
handful, And Samawat (Firmaments) will be Rolled up in His right hand:
Glory to Him! High is He above The Partners they attribute To Him!" (Surah
No. 39, verse 67).
VII.
Red Giant
"As the Sun ages, helium collects in its center. After a lifetime of
9 billion years as main-sequence star, approximately 10% of the hydrogen in the
Sun's core will have been converted into helium and nuclear fusion reactions
will cease producing energy. The equilibrium
between the total pressure force directed outwards and the gravitational force
directed towards the centre of the Sun will be disturbed. The core of the Sun
starts slowly collapsing under its own gravitational attraction. Fusion moves
outward to a shell surrounding the core, where hydrogen-rich material is still
present. The gravitational energy from the collapse will be converted into heat
causing the shell to burn vigorously and so the Sun's outer layers to swell
immensely. The surface is now far removed from the central energy source, cools
and appears to glow red. The Sun now evolves into the stage of a red giant. For
a few hundred million years, the expansion of the outer solar layers will
continue, and the Sun will engulf the planet Mercury. The temperature on Venus
and Earth will rise tremendously. Hydrogen fusion in the shell continues to
deposit helium "ash" onto the core, which becomes even hotter and
more massive.
In the Sun's core nuclear fusion of helium into carbon and oxygen will
start to trigger even further the expansion of its outer layers. The
helium-rich core is unable to lose heat fast enough and becomes unstable. In a very
short time of few hours the core gets too hot and is forced to expand
explosively. Outer layers of the Sun will absorb the core explosion but the
core will no longer be able to produce energy by thermonuclear burning. Helium
fusion then continues in a shell and the structure of the Sun would look like
an onion: An outer, hydrogen-fusion layer and an inner, helium-fusion layer
which surrounds an inert core of carbon and oxygen.
The old Sun may repeat
the cycle of shrinking and swelling several times. In this stage of evolution
the Sun is called an asymptotic giant branch star. Finally enough carbon will
accumulate in the core to prevent the core explosion. Helium-shell burning will
add heat to the outer layers of the Sun, mainly containing hydrogen and helium.
The asymptotic giant Sun will generate eventually an intense wind that begins
to carry off its outer envelope. The precise mechanism behind this phenomenon
is not yet well understood. The Sun will expand a final time and after about 30
million years it will swallow Venus and Earth, outer layers will keep expanding
outward and as much as half of the Sun's mass gets lost into space."
(http://neutrino.aquaphoenix.com/un-esa/sun/sun-chapter5.html).
This visualization,
which was written probably twenty years ago, is confirmed this month by a
physical team. The following is their statement:
Astronomers have
observed a distant planet where it probably rains iron.
It sounds like a science
fiction movie, but this is the nature of some of the extreme worlds we're now
discovering.
Wasp-76b, as it's
known, orbits so close in to its host star, its dayside temperatures exceed
2,000C - hot enough to vaporize metals.
The planet's
nightside, on the other hand, is 1,000 degrees cooler, allowing those metals to
condense and rain out, resulting in different day-night chemistry
While metallic
elements and a large temperature contrast have been observed, no chemical
gradient has been measured across the surface of such an exoplanet. Different
atmospheric chemistry between the day-to-night (“evening”) and night-to-day
(“morning”) terminators could, however, be revealed as an asymmetric absorption
signature during transit.
The absorption signal,
attributed to neutral iron, is blueshifted by −11±0.7 km s-1
on the trailing limb (Fig. 3), which can be explained by a combination of
planetary rotation and wind blowing from the hot dayside. In contrast, no
signal arises from the nightside close to the morning terminator, showing that
atomic iron is not absorbing starlight there. Iron must thus condense during
its journey across the nightside.
It's a bizarre
environment, according to Dr David Ehrenreich from the University of Geneva.
"Imagine instead
of a drizzle of water droplets, you have iron droplets splashing down," he
told BBC News.
The Swiss researcher
and colleagues have just published their findings on this strange place in the journal Nature.
The team describes how
it used the new Espresso instrument ([1]) at
the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope in Chile to study the
chemistry of Wasp-76b in fine detail.
The planet, which is
640 light-years from us, is so close to its star it takes just 43 hours to
complete one revolution.
Another of the
planet's interesting features is that it always presents the same face to the
star - a behavior which scientists call being "tidally locked".
Earth's Moon does exactly the same thing; we only ever see one side.
This means, of course,
the permanent dayside of Wasp-76b is being roasted.
In fact, this
hemisphere must be so hot that all clouds are dispersed, and all molecules in
the atmosphere are broken apart into individual atoms.
What's more, the
extreme temperature difference this produces between the lit and unlit portions
of the planet will be driving ferocious winds, up to 18,000km/h says Dr
Ehrenreich's team.
Using the Espresso
spectrometer, the scientists detected a strong iron vapour signature at the
evening frontier, or terminator, where the day on Wasp-76b transitions to
night. But when the group observed the morning transition, the iron signal was gone
(Figure 3).
"What we surmise is that the
iron is condensing on the night-side, which, although still hot at 1,400C, is
cold enough that iron can condense as clouds, as rain, possibly as droplets.
These could then fall into the deeper layers of the atmosphere which we can't
access with our instrument," Dr Ehrenreich explained.
Wasp-76b is a monster
gas planet that's twice the width of our Jupiter. Its unusual name comes from
the UK-led
Wasp telescope system that detected the world four years ago.
One of the scientists
on the discovery team, Prof Don Pollacco from Warwick University, said it was
hard to envisage such exotic worlds.
"This thing
orbits so close to its star, it's essentially dancing in the outer atmosphere
of that star and being subjected to all kinds of physics that, to put it
bluntly, we don't really understand," he told BBC News.
"It will either
end up in the star or the radiation field from the star will blow away the
planet's atmosphere to leave just a hot, rocky core."
|
|
|
|
Figure 3: Polar view of the
WASP-76 system. Fig. 3-a, The star WASP-76 and planet WASP-76b are
represented to scale in size and distance. The planet is shown at different
transit stages, with the transit contacts I, II, III and IV. During transit,
the angle ζ between the planet terminator and the line of sight (dashed
line in the middle) changes by 2 arcsin R*/a =
29.4°, where a is the
semi-major axis. Fig. 3-b, Sketch of the absorption signature observed during
transit, in the planet rest frame. The numbers refer to the insets. (1)
During ingress, iron on the dayside is visible through the leading limb and
creates an absorption around 0 km s-1. The trailing limb (branch
behind) enters the stellar disc and progressively blueshifts the signal. (2)
The signal around 0 km s-1 disappears as soon as no more iron is
visible in the leading limb. Only the trailing limb contributes to the
signal, which remain blueshifted
around −11 km s-1. (3) The signal remains at this
blueshifted velocity until the end of the transit. |
الشكل
3: منظر قطبي
لنظام WASP-76. الشكل 3-a ،
يتم تمثيل
النجم WASP-76 وكوكب WASP-76b بقياس
رسم يراعي
الحجوم
والمسافات
الحقيقية.
يظهر الكوكب
في مراحل
عبور
مختلفة، مع
تفاعلات
مراحل
العبور
الأول
والثاني
والثالث
والرابع.
أثناء
العبور،
تتغير
الزاوية ζ بين
فاصل الكوكب
وخط البصر
(الخط
المتقطع في
المنتصف)
بمقدار 2 arcsin R*/a=29.4° ،
حيث a يمثل
المحور شبه
الرئيسي.
الشكل 3-b ،
رسم تخطيطي
لدليل
الامتصاص
الذي لوحظ
أثناء
العبور، في
إطار السكون
للكوكب. تشير
الأرقام إلى
المدخلات. (1)
أثناء
الدخول،
يمكن رؤية الحديد
على جانب
النهار من
خلال الطرف
المتقدّم
ويُحدث
الحديد امتصاصًا
حول 0 كم لكل
ثانية. يدخل
الطرف
اللاحق إلى
القرص
النجمي
ويُحدث في
الإشارة
انزياح نحو
الأزرق بشكل
تدريجي. (2)
تختفي
الإشارة حول 0
كم لكل ثانية
بمجرد عدم
ظهور المزيد
من الحديد في
الطرف
المتقدّم.
فقط الطرف
اللاحق يساهم
في الإشارة ،
التي تظل
بانزياح
أزرق حول −11 كم
لكل ثانية. (3) تظل
الإشارة عند
السرعة
المقابلة
لهذا الانزياح
نحو الأزرق
حتى نهاية
العبور. |
DISCUSSION
Earth is created via Madd
(accretion, inflation, and tidal interaction) and contraction as indicated by
both Qur'an and physics. Protogiant
planets, after an initial hydrodynamic accretion phase, go through an extended
phase of quasi-hydrostatic contraction. The rate of contraction slows down as
the planet approaches an asymptotic final radius; at this point, most of the
energy liberated is the result of cooling of the interior. This has been compared with verses from
Qur'an that indicate same thing.
Also Earth will be Madd
at The Day of Judgment. According to Qur'an and Sunnah, the Day of
Judgment will have the time length of a 50,000 earthly days. Earth will be very close to the sun. Consistent with physics,
the word Madd being used by Qur'an indicates the followings: Orbital
eccentricity may be excited by a collision, secular perturbation by other planets,
or tidal interaction with a very rapidly rotating star. The internal heating is associated with star
planet interaction. The expansion of the
planetary radius intensifies this type of interaction. This active feedback
process shortens the reversal evolution timescale (Bodenheimer et al.,
2001). Here, the reversal evolution is
used to indicate that earth-sun separation will decrease on the Day of
Judgment, contrary to increased separation during the few million years of
earth's formation. Under some
circumstances, the expansion of the planetary radius may induce the planet to
swell beyond its Roche radius and become tidally disrupted (Trilling, et al.
1998). In multiple planetary systems
such as Ups And, a further energy source is possible for the innermost planet
through the dissipation of orbital eccentricity induced by secular
perturbations from the outer planets (Bodenheimer et al., 2001). This is likely to occur for earth, since at the Day of
Judgment Qur'an indicates: "And the
sun and moon are joined together." (Surah 75, verse 9). Also "Then watch thou for the Day that the sky will bring forth a kind
of smoke (or mist) plainly visible." (Surah 44, verse 10).
Furthermore, "And When the Ardh (Earth) is Madd." (Surah 84,
verse 3). Madd means being
supplied by accretion, spread out, inflated, having an increased surface area (Ibn
Katheer, Part 4, p. 629; al-Tabri, 1995,
XV:142; al-Qurtubi, 1996, Part 19: 177). al-Razi says (1995, XVI: Part 31: 105): “One has to know that increasing the
area of the earth is a must, whether through inflation or accretion”. The ejection of earths core increases metal abundance and
radius. Also the enhanced grain opacity
in the outer layers, corresponding to the increased metal abundance, tends to
increase the earths radius. Also,
internal heating together with tidal dissipation are sources of energy. All these factors will inflate the earth at
the Day of Judgment (al-Razi, 1995, XVI: Part 31: 105; Bodenheimer et al.,
2001). This is consistent with the verses:
"And when the Ardh (Earth) is Madd (inflated and spread out)
* And casts forth what is within it and becomes -clean- empty" (Surah 84,
verse 3-4). During the Red Giant phase of the sun, the temperature on Earth will rise
tremendously. Earth outer layer will keep expanding outward.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
author is indebted and very grateful to Professors: Peter Bodenhimer, D. Lin,
and R. Mardling from University of California, Santa Cruz. They are the authors of the main
astrophysical reference being used by this article. Their paper explains the physics in Qur'anic
verses addressing madd and daho of earth. Also I am indebted to them for their valuable
suggestions.
Resources
The Glorious Quran
Hadith’s Books
References and Citations:
1) Abu Hayan al-Andalusi al-Gharnati,
Mohammed Ibn Yousef (654-754 Hijri) al-Bahr al-Muheet (The Surrounding Sea), nine volumes, Beirut (1992).
2) Abu Hayan al-Andalusi al-Gernati, Mohammed bin Yousef (654-754 Hijri) An-Nahr
al-Madd men al-Bahr ila al-Muheet (The Extended River from the Sea to the
Ocean).
3) al-Albani (1995) Saheeh al-Jama’
(The Collective Right), 7; Mishkat al-Masabeeh (The Niche), six volumes, Beirut.
4) al-Qurtubi, Abi Abdullah Mohamed bin Ahmed (671
Hijri). Al-Jame’ li Ahkam al-Quran (The
Collection for the Regualtions of the Quran) Beirut, Dar al-Kutub, 5th
Edition (1996).
5) al-Razi, Fakher ad-Din (604 Hijri- 1208) al-Tafseer al-Kabeer wa
Mafateeh al-Ghaib (The Extended Interpretation and the Guides to the
Unknown) Beirut, dar al-Fiker (1995), 17 volumes.
6) al-Tabri, Ibn Jareer (310- Hijri). Jame’
al-Bayan an Ta'weel Ay al-Quran (The Figurative Collection for the
Paraphrase of the Verses of the Quran), Beirut, dar al-Fiker (1995),
15 volumes.
7)
Barnhart, Clarence L. and Barnhart, Robert K.
The World Book Dictionary, FE Chicago, 1977, two volumes.
8) Bodenheimer,
P., Lin, D. N. C. and Mardling, R. A. SHORT-PERIOD EXTRASOLAR PLANETS1,
ApJ, 2001, 548:466-472.
9) Bodenheimer,
P., & Pollack, J. B. 1986, Icarus, 67, 391.
10) Boss, A. P. 1997, Science,
276, 1836.
11) Boss. 1998, ApJ, 503, 923.
12) Burrows, A., et al. 1997,
ApJ, 491, 856.
13) Cameron, A. G. W. 1978,
Moon Planets, 18, 5.
14) Charbonneau, D., Brown, T.
M., Latham, D. W., & Mayor, M. 2000, ApJ, 529, L45.
15) Clark,
Stuart. Extra solar planets, Wiley,
1998.
16) Dormand, J. R., and Woolfson, M. M., 1989. The Origin of the Solar
System, Halsted, Wiley, p. 36.
17) Goldreich, P., & Soter,
S. 1966, Icarus, 5, 375.
18) Guillot, T., Burrows, A.,
Hubbard, W. B., Lunine, J. I., & Saumon, D. 1996, ApJ, 459, L35.
19) Henry, G. W., Marcy, G. W.,
Butler, R. P., & Vogt, S. S. 2000, ApJ, 529, L41.
20) Hubbard, W. B. 1980, Rev.
Geophys. Space Phys., 18, 1.
21) Ibn Katheer al-Qurishi
al-Damashqi, Emad Ed-Din Abi al-Fida’ (1994). Tafseer al-Quran al-Kareem
(The Interpretation of the Glorious Quran) Damascus, Dar al-Fiha’, First
Edition, Four volumes.
22) Ibn al-Manzur (1993). Lissan al-Arab (The Rhetoric of the
Arabs), Arabic History Establishment, Beirut, 3rd Edition.
23) Kuiper, G. P.
24) Mayor, M., & Queloz, D.
1995, Nature, 378, 355.
25) Omari, Hussain. “Bina’ as-Sama’
wal Maddeh al-Muzlemah al-Barideh: Dirasah Muqaraneh bain al-Falak wal Quran”
(The Building of Sama and the Cold Dark Matter: A Comparative Study between
Astrophysics and Qur'an) Mu’tah lil Bouhuth wad Dirasat (2002) 17, 2:
187-211.
https://eijaz.mutah.edu.jo/samaacdm.htm
26) Omari, Hussain. “al-Ardhoun al-Saba’:
Loghz al-Maddeh al-Mudhlemeh and Bawabit Takmeen al-Kawn.”
(Mystery of the Dark Material and the Gate for the quantization of the
Universe). Journal of Al-Ma'arif University – College. (1425 H/
https://eijaz.mutah.edu.jo/sevenardhoan.htm
27) Omari, Hussain (2004) Khalq al-Kawn
bain al_Ayat al-Qur’aneah and al-Haqa'iq al-Elmeyyah
(The Creation of the Universe Between Qur'anic Verses and Scientific Facts)
Mu’tah Lil Bouhuth 19 (2004): 11.
https://eijaz.mutah.edu.jo/univcreation.htm
28) Omari, Hussain.Y. I. R. 2009,
Iron Inzal, to be submitted.
https://eijaz.mutah.edu.jo/ironenglish.htm
28-a) Omari, Hussain.Y. I. R. 2009, Iron Inzal, written in Arabic language.
https://eijaz.mutah.edu.jo/ironarabic.htm
29) Parker,
B. R. (1984), concept of the cosmos An Introduction to Astronomy, Idaho
State University, USA, p. 157.
30) Phillips, A. C. (1994), The
Physics of Stars, Wiley, page 25-28.
31)
Ross, Matts(1994), Introduction
to cosmology, Wiley, p. 62.
32) Saheeh al-Bukhari, al-Jama’
al-Saheeh (The Correct Collection):
33) Salpeter, E. E. 1973, ApJ,
181, L83.
34) Safronov, V. S. 1969,
Evolution of the Protoplanetary Cloud and Formation of
the Earth and Planets (Moscow: Nauka).
35) Saumon, D., Hubbard, W. B.,
Burrows, A., Guillot, T., Lunine, J. I., & Chabrier, G. 1996, ApJ, 460,
993.
36)
Shapiro, S. and Teukolsky S. (1983), Black holes, white dwarfs, and neutron
stars. The physics of compact
objects, John Wiley and sons New York.
37) Smoluchowski, R. 1967,
Nature, 215, 691.
38) Stevenson, D. J. 1975,
Phys. Rev. B, 12, 3999.
39) Stevenson, D. J. 1982,
Planet. Space Sci., 30, 755.
40) Swihart, Thomas L., Quantitative
Astronomy, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1992.
41) Trilling, D. E., Benz, W.,
Guillot, T., Lunine, J. I., Hubbard, W. B., & Burrows, A. 1998, ApJ, 500,
428.
42) Wetherill, G. W. 1980,
ARA&A, 18, 77.
43) Wuchterl, G., Guillot, T.,
& Lissauer, J. J.
44) Zeilik, Michal (1994) Astronomy
the evolving universe. John Wiley
and sons, New York, seventh Ed.
FIG. 2. Radius of planet (in
solar units) as a function of dissipation rate (in solar units) for the
companions of HD 209458 (filled pentagons), Ups And (four-pointed stars), and 
Boo (open
triangles).
To English
To Arabic-English
To
Arabic
NOTES:-