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الْخُنَّسِ الْجَوَارِ الْكُنَّسِ وأجزاء
الكون الخفيّة
أ. د. حسين يوسف
عمري
قسم الفيزياء /
جامعة مؤتة / الأردن
rashed@mutah.edu.jo
يقول سبحانه وتعالى:
(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ
بِالْخُنَّسِ * الْجَوَارِ
الْكُنَّسِ * وَاللَّيْلِ إِذَا عَسْعَسَ) (التكوير س 81 ، آية 15-17)
(So
verily I call to witness those (Stars and galaxies) that hide and recede. Constantly moving, and accreating. And the Night as it gets Darker) (S. 81; V. 15-17)
رَوَى مُسْلِم
فِي صَحِيحه وَالنَّسَائِيّ فِي تَفْسِيره عِنْد هَذِهِ الْآيَة مِنْ حَدِيث
مِسْعَر بْن كِدَام عَنْ الْوَلِيد بْن سَرِيع عَنْ عَمْرو بْن حُرَيْث قَالَ : صَلَّيْت
خَلْف النَّبِيّ صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ الصُّبْح فَسَمِعْته يَقْرَأ
" فَلَا أُقْسِم بِالْخُنَّسِ الْجَوَار الْكُنَّس وَاللَّيْل إِذَا عَسْعَسَ
وَالصُّبْح إِذَا تَنَفَّسَ " وَرَوَاهُ النَّسَائِيّ عَنْ بُنْدَار عَنْ
غُنْدَر عَنْ شُعْبَة عَنْ الْحَجَّاج بْن عَاصِم عَنْ أَبِي الْأَسْوَد عَنْ
عَمْرو بْن حُرَيْث بِهِ نَحْوه قَالَ اِبْن أَبِي حَاتِم وَابْن جَرِير مِنْ
طَرِيق الثَّوْرِيّ عَنْ أَبِي إِسْحَاق عَنْ رَجُل مِنْ مُرَاد عَنْ عَلِيّ
" فَلَا أُقْسِم بِالْخُنَّسِ الْجَوَار الْكُنَّس " قَالَ هِيَ النُّجُوم تَخْنَس بِالنَّهَارِ وَتَظْهَر بِاللَّيْلِ
وَقَالَ اِبْن جَرِير حَدَّثَنَا اِبْن الْمُثَنَّى حَدَّثَنَا مُحَمَّد بْن
جَعْفَر حَدَّثَنَا شُعْبَة عَنْ سِمَاك بْن حَرْب سَمِعْت خَالِد بْن عَرْعَرَة
سَمِعْت عَلِيًّا وَسُئِلَ عَنْ " لَا أُقْسِم بِالْخُنَّسِ الْجَوَار الْكُنَّس
" فَقَالَ هِيَ النُّجُوم تَخْنَس
بِالنَّهَارِ وَتَكْنُس بِاللَّيْلِ وَحَدَّثَنَا أَبُو كُرَيْب
حَدَّثَنَا وَكِيع عَنْ إِسْرَائِيل عَنْ سِمَاك عَنْ خَالِد عَنْ عَلِيّ قَالَ
هِيَ النُّجُوم وَهَذَا إِسْنَاد جَيِّد صَحِيح إِلَى خَالِد بْن عَرْعَرَة وَهُوَ
السَّهْمِيّ الْكُوفِيّ (الراوي: خالد بن عرعرة ، خلاصة الدرجة: إسناده جيد
،
المحدث: ابن
كثير، المصدر: تفسير
القرآن ، الصفحة أو الرقم 8/359 ).
هذا وإنّ
المواقع الآنيّة الحقيقية للنجوم لا يعلمها إلاّ اللّه. وتمّ توضيح ذلك في بحث منشور عنوانه بعض أسرار القسم الرّباني
بمواقع النجوم ([1]). ناقش هذا
البحث القليل من أسرار كثيرة وعظيمة ينطوي عليها القسم الرّباني بمواقع النجوم؛ وذلك من خلال ذكر بعض التَّعقيدات الفيزيائيّة الّتي تكتنف حساب أبعاد النُّجوم عن كرتنا
الأرضيّة. وتبيّن أنَّ العلم الدّقيق
بمواقع النّجوم ومنازلها لا يحيطُ به إلاّ الخالق سبحانه وتعالى. ويترتّبُ
على ذلك عدم معرفة منازلها في السّماء، وعدم تحديد مطالعها ومشارقها بشكلٍ دقيق. وبالتالي
أيّاً كان المقصود بمواقع النّجوم: منازلها ومواقعها في السّماء، مطالعها
ومشارقها، انكدارها يوم القيامة أو انتثارها، نجوم القرآن، فأيُّ شيءٍ من ذلك لا
يحيطُ بعلمه إلاّ الخالق سبحانه وتعالى (بحث : أسرار القسم الرّباني
بمواقع النجوم).
(وَاللَّيْلِ
إِذَا عَسْعَسَ)
فِيهِ
قَوْلَانِ " أَحَدهمَا " إِقْبَاله بِظَلَامِهِ قَالَ مُجَاهِد أَظْلَمَ
وَقَالَ سَعِيد بْن جُبَيْر إِذَا نَشَأَ وَقَالَ الْحَسَن الْبَصْرِيّ إِذَا
غَشِيَ النَّاس وَكَذَا قَالَ عَطِيَّة الْعَوْفِيّ وَقَالَ عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي
طَلْحَة وَالْعَوْفِيّ عَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس " إِذَا عَسْعَسَ " إِذَا
أَدْبَرَ وَكَذَا قَالَ مُجَاهِد وَقَتَادَة وَالضَّحَّاك وَكَذَا قَالَ زَيْد بْن
أَسْلَم وَابْنه عَبْد الرَّحْمَن " إِذَا عَسْعَسَ " أَيْ إِذَا ذَهَبَ
فَتَوَلَّى وَقَالَ أَبُو دَاوُد الطَّيَالِسِيّ حَدَّثَنَا شُعْبَة عَنْ عَمْرو
بْن مُرَّة عَنْ أَبِي الْبُحْتُرِيّ سَمِعَ أَبَا عَبْد الرَّحْمَن السُّلَمِيّ
قَالَ : خَرَجَ عَلَيْنَا عَلِيّ رَضِيَ اللَّه عَنْهُ حِين ثَوَّبَ الْمُثَوِّب
بِصَلَاةِ الصُّبْح فَقَالَ : أَيْنَ السَّائِلُونَ عَنْ الْوِتْر " وَاللَّيْل
إِذَا عَسْعَسَ وَالصُّبْح إِذَا تَنَفَّسَ " هَذَا حِين أَدْبَرَ حَسَن
وَقَدْ اِخْتَارَ اِبْن جَرِير أَنَّ الْمُرَاد بِقَوْلِهِ " إِذَا عَسْعَسَ
" إِذَا أَدْبَرَ قَالَ لِقَوْلِهِ " وَالصُّبْح إِذَا تَنَفَّسَ "
أَيْ أَضَاءَ وَاسْتَشْهَدَ بِقَوْلِ الشَّاعِر أَيْضًا : حَتَّى إِذَا الصُّبْح
لَهُ تَنَفُّسًا وَانْجَابَ عَنْهَا لَيْلهَا وَعَسْعَسًا أَيْ أَدْبَرَ. ويقول ابن كثير: وَعِنْدِي أَنَّ الْمُرَاد بِقَوْلِهِ " إِذَا عَسْعَسَ
" إِذَا أَقْبَلَ وَإِنْ كَانَ يَصِحّ اِسْتِعْمَاله فِي الْإِدْبَار أَيْضًا
لَكِنَّ الْإِقْبَال هَاهُنَا أَنْسَب كَأَنَّهُ أَقْسَمَ بِاللَّيْلِ وَظَلَامه
إِذَا أَقْبَلَ وَبِالْفَجْرِ وَضِيَائِهِ إِذَا أَشْرَقَ كَمَا
قَالَ تَعَالَى " وَاللَّيْل إِذَا يَغْشَى وَالنَّهَار إِذَا تَجَلَّى
" وَقَالَ تَعَالَى " وَالضُّحَى وَاللَّيْل إِذَا سَجَى " وَقَالَ
تَعَالَى " فَالِق الْإِصْبَاح وَجَعَلَ اللَّيْل سَكَنًا " وَغَيْر
ذَلِكَ مِنْ الْآيَات وَقَالَ كَثِير مِنْ عُلَمَاء الْأُصُول إِنَّ لَفْظَة
عَسْعَسدَ تُسْتَعْمَل فِي الْإِقْبَال وَالْإِدْبَار عَلَى وَجْه الِاشْتِرَاك
فَعَلَى هَذَا يَصِحّ أَنْ يُرَاد كُلّ مِنْهُمَا وَاَللَّه أَعْلَم . قَالَ اِبْن
جَرِير وَكَانَ بَعْض أَهْل الْمَعْرِفَة
بِكَلَامِ الْعَرَب يَزْعُم أَنَّ عَسْعَسَ دَنَا مِنْ أَوَّله وَأَظْلَمَ
وَقَالَ الْفَرَّاء كَانَ أَبُو الْبِلَاد النَّحْوِيّ يُنْشِد بَيْتًا : عَسْعَسَ
حَتَّى لَوْ يَشَا ادَّنَى كَانَ لَهُ مِنْ ضَوْئِهِ مِقْبَس يُرِيد لَوْ يَشَاء
إِذْ دَنَا أَدْغَمَ الذَّال فِي الدَّال قَالَ الْفَرَّاء وَكَانُوا يَزْعُمُونَ
أَنَّ هَذَا الْبَيْت مَصْنُوع.
The rest of the article is just to
illustrate two aspects of the stars and galaxies: Hiding and receding.
Astronomers know that normal matter, the stuff of stars and planets,
makes up only 5% of the observable universe. Dark matter accounts for a further
25%, with the remaining 70% being the even more exotic dark energy, which drives
the expansion of the cosmos.
Dark
Energy
Dark
energy makes up approximately 70% of the universe and appears to be associated
with the vacuum in space. It is distributed evenly throughout the universe, not
only in space but also in time – in other words, its effect is not diluted as
the universe expands. The even distribution means that dark energy does not
have any local gravitational effects, but rather a global effect on the
universe as a whole. This leads to a repulsive force, which tends to accelerate
the expansion of the universe. The rate of expansion and its acceleration can
be measured by observations based on the Hubble law. These measurements,
together with other scientific data, have confirmed the existence of dark
energy and provide an estimate of just how much of it exists.
(http://home.web.cern.ch/about/physics/dark-matter)
تشكل الطاقة
المظلمة ما يقرب من 70% من مكونات الكون، ويبدو أنها
ترتبط مع الفراغ الكوني. يتم توزيعها بالتساوي في جميع أنحاء الكون، وليس فقط في
الفضاء ولكن أيضا في الزمان . وبعبارة
أخرى، لا يضعف تأثيرها مع توسع الكون. التوزيع المنتظم للطاقة المظلمة يعني أنه
ليس لديها أي آثار جاذبية محلية، وإنما لها تأثير على نطاق الكون ككل. وتأثيرها
يبدو كقوة طاردة، أو قوّة تنافر تعمل على تسريع توسع الكون. ويمكن قياس معدل
التوسع والتسارع الكوني من خلال الأرصاد واستنادا إلى قانون هابل. هذه القياسات،
جنبا إلى جنب مع بيانات علمية أخرى، أكدت وجود الطاقة المظلمة وحدّدت مقدارها.
Dark energy is persistent, which impart a constant impulse to the
expansion of the universe, which makes galaxies accelerate away. Dark energy doesn’t dilute away as the universe expands.
الطاقة المظلمة
هي ثابتة، وهي التي تبذل شغلاً وبدفع (impulse) ثابت يسهم في
توسع الكون، الأمر الذي يجعل المجرات تتباعد وبتسارع. الطاقة المظلمة لا تتناقص مع توسّع الكون.
Dark matter and Dark energy are referred to by
the verses:
- (وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ * وَالأرْضَ فَرَشْنَاهَا فَنِعْمَ الْمَاهِدُونَ * وَمِنْ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ خَلَقْنَا زَوْجَيْنِ لَعَلَّكُمْ
تَذَكَّرُونَ) ] 49-47 الذّاريات[.
" We have built The Sama -
Firmament - with might, We indeed Have vast power; to create the vastness
of Space and continue to expand it * And We have
spread out Ardh - Ground; interior or
lower part of the Universe; the dark matter holding the galaxies -: How excellently We do spread out * And of everything We have created pairs: that ye may receive instruction " (Surah No. 51,
verse 47- 49).
Examples of such pairs are: Dark matter (Sama – Firmament -, and Ardh - Ground; interior or lower part of the Universe; the dark
matter holding the galaxies) and Matter. Another pair is Dark
energy and energy.
مجموع رقم الآيتين (95) يساوي القيمة الحاليّة
لمجموع نسب الطاقة المظلمة والمادّة المظلمة:
The sum for the
numbers of these two verses, 95, is equal to the
present value of the sum of percentages of dark matter and dark energy:
(25% + 70%) = 95%
[9]
"Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the Ardh (lower - interior - part of
the early Universe; large scale structure of dark matter) in two Days (periods)?
and do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds." [10]
He set on the (Ardh). Like Mountains standing firm, above it, and bestowed blessings on
the Ardh, and measured therein all things to give them nourishment in due
proportion, in precisely four Days (periods) for those who seek knowledge,
and also in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (sustenance). " (Surah 41, Verses
9-10).
(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِمَا تُبْصِرُونَ * وَمَا لَا
تُبْصِرُونَ) (الحاقة س 69، الآيتان
38-39)
"Furthermore I swear by what ye see * And what ye see not." (S. 69 V 38-39)
- (سُبْحَانَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَزْوَاجَ كُلَّهَا مِمَّا تُنْبِتُ الْأَرْضُ وَمِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ وَمِمَّا لَا يَعْلَمُونَ * وَآيَةٌ لَهُمُ اللَّيْلُ نَسْلَخُ مِنْهُ النَّهَارَ فَإِذَا هُمْ
مُظْلِمُونَ) [يس 36-37]
(Glory to Allah, Who created
in
pairs all things that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of
which they have no knowledge. * And a Sign for them is the Night: We withdraw
therefrom the Day, and behold they are plunged in darkness.) (S. 36, V. 36-37)
- (والَّذِي خَلَقَ
الْأَزْوَاجَ كُلَّهَا) [الزّخرف 12]
[12] That has created pairs in all things, and has made
for you ships and cattle on which ye ride,) (S. 43, V. 12)
- (وَمِنْ
كُلِّ شَيْءٍ خَلَقْنَا زَوْجَيْنِ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَذَكَّرُونَ) [الذّاريات 49].
[49] And of everything We have created pairs: that ye may receive instruction. ) (S. 51, V. 49)
(وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْيدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ)
(أَأَنْتُمْ
أَشَدُّ خَلْقًا أَمْ السَّمَاءُ بَنَاهَا * رَفَعَ سَمْكَهَا فَسَوَّاهَا)
[النّازعات 27-28]
[27]
What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the Samaa (Firmaments) (above)?
(Allah) hath constructed it: [28] On high hath He raised its canopy, and He
hath given it order and perfection. ) (S. 79, V. 27)
(وَالسَّمَاءَ رَفَعَهَا وَوَضَعَ الْمِيزَانَ) (الرحمن 7)
(And the Firmament has He raised high, and He has set up the
Balance (of Justice),) (S. 55, V. 7)
(اللَّهُ الَّذِي
رَفَعَ السَّمَاوَاتِ بِغَيْرِ عَمَدٍ تَرَوْنَهَا ثُمَّ اسْتَوَى عَلَى الْعَرْشِ
وَسَخَّرَ الشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ كُلٌّ يَجْرِي لِأَجَلٍ مُسَمًّى يُدَبِّرُ الْأَمْرَ
يُفَصِّلُ الْآيَاتِ لَعَلَّكُمْ بِلِقَاءِ رَبِّكُمْ تُوقِنُونَ) (الرعد 2)
(Allah is He Who raised the
Samawat – Firmaments - without any pillars that ye can see; then He
established Himself on the Throne (of Authority); He has subjected the sun and
the moon (to His Law)! Each one runs (its course) for a term appointed. He doth
regulate all affairs, explaining the Signs in detail, that ye may believe with
certainty in the meeting with your Lord.) (S. 13, V. 2)
يُخْبِر اللَّه
تَعَالَى عَنْ كَمَالِ قُدْرَته وَعَظِيم سُلْطَانه أَنَّهُ الَّذِي بِإِذْنِهِ
وَأَمْره رَفَعَ السَّمَوَات بِغَيْرِ عَمَد بَلْ بِإِذْنِهِ وَأَمْره وَتَسْخِيره
رَفَعَهَا عَنْ الْأَرْض بُعْدًا لَا تُنَال (بن كثير).
(خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ
بِغَيْرِ عَمَدٍ تَرَوْنَهَا وَأَلْقَى فِي الْأَرْضِ رَوَاسِيَ أَنْ تَمِيدَ
بِكُمْ وَبَثَّ فِيهَا مِنْ كُلِّ دَابَّةٍ وَأَنْزَلْنَا مِنَ السَّمَاءِ مَاءً
فَأَنْبَتْنَا فِيهَا مِنْ كُلِّ زَوْجٍ كَرِيمٍ) (لقمان 10)
(He created the Samawat – Firmaments - without any pillars
that ye can see; He set on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should
shake with you; and He scattered through it beasts of all kinds. We send down
rain from the sky, and produce on the earth every kind of noble creature, in
pairs.) (S. 31, V. 10)
يُبَيِّن
سُبْحَانه بِهَذَا قُدْرَته الْعَظِيمَة عَلَى خَلْق السَّمَاوَات وَالْأَرْض
وَمَا فِيهِمَا وَمَا بَيْنهمَا فَقَالَ تَعَالَى " خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَات
بِغَيْرِ عَمَد " قَالَ الْحَسَن وَقَتَادَة لَيْسَ لَهَا عَمَد مَرْئِيَّة
وَلَا غَيْر مَرْئِيَّة . وَقَالَ اِبْن عَبَّاس وَعِكْرِمَة وَمُجَاهِد لَهَا
عَمَد لَا تَرَوْنَهَا (بن كثير).
يوسّع
الله سبحانه وتعالى بناء السّماء، فيتعاظم الفراغ في الكون، وتزداد الطاقة
المظلمة. فينتج عنه فرش ومهاد الأرضين
(المادّة المظلمة التي تحضن جاذبيّا مجرّات الكون). وبالتالي تتباعد المسافات بين المجرّات.
ALLAH (GOD) Have built
The Sama - Firmament - with might, He indeed Have vast power; to create
its vastness and continue to expand it, and on high hath He raised its
canopy. This gives rise to the so called
negative pressure (Dark energy); since Sama is a solid construction (roof) with
no cracks, and completely covers and surrounds the universe. This is clearly indicated by many verses.
Before the first radio
observations were made in the 1930s, all that was known about the Universe came
from observations in the visible part of the spectrum. Scientists were not even
aware of the “hidden Universe” beyond the boundaries of the visible. For many
years a kind of narrow-sightedness existed amongst astronomers that could
perhaps be called “visible-light chauvinism” — an exaggerated focus on the
processes that are visible to our eyes. For all that the visible part of the
spectrum is very important and information-rich, it is just a tiny part of the
full story.
The visible wavelengths are called “visible” because
they are the wavelengths that we can see naturally. Natural selection has
forged a connection between our eyes and the Sun’s light, most of which emerges
in the visible range. Our eyes are biologically tuned to be sensitive where the
Sun is brightest. Coincidentally, like the Sun — which is a perfectly ordinary
G dwarf star — many other stars emit a large part, or even the majority, of
their light in the visible range.
Multi-wavelength
Observations:
This section is an outline of the book titled: HIDDEN
UNIVERSE (http://www.hiddenuniverse.org/). The following is a brief summary of the book;
which is more or less an explanation or a light shed on the verse:
(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِالْخُنَّسِ * الْجَوَارِي الْكُنَّسِ * وَاللَّيْلِ إِذَا
عَسْعَسَ)
(التكوير س 81 ،
آية 15-17)
(So verily I call to witness those (Stars and galaxies) that
hide and recede. Constantly
moving, and accreating. And
the Night as it gets Darker) (S. 81; V. 15-17)
|
Until 400 years ago, when Galileo first turned
his telescope towards the heavens, our perception of the Universe was limited
by our eyes and the thoughts and ideas arising from what we saw. The huge
leap in capability that even such a simple instrument could realize set us on
the path of creating ever more powerful instruments to satisfy our voracious
appetite for knowledge. Nonetheless, until the mid-20th century our view
of the Universe was limited almost entirely to the narrow band of light that
could penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere and was visible either to our eyes or
to sensitive photographic plates loaded at the focus of increasingly large
telescopes. With these resources alone, the discoveries were still stupendous:
the mapping of our Solar System, the identification of the mechanism that
makes stars shine and determines how long they live, the realisation that
there are a multitude of galaxies like our own Milky Way and that they
constitute an expanding Universe. The profound revolution in physics during
the first half of the century brought with it the understanding of how light
is emitted and how to read the subtle messages it carries concerning the
physical state and chemical composition of stars and nebulae. Stimulated by the development of radar for
military use, the first major expansion of our view was the result of the
development of radio astronomy, leading to the realization that the Universe
could look very different to us when seen through new “eyes” tuned to a
different type of radiation. The launch of Sputnik in 1957 paved the way for
astronomy’s escape from the absorbing and distorting effects of the Earth’s
atmosphere. With truly clear skies, generations of exploratory spacecraft and
orbiting observatories have produced a wondrous and often breathtakingly
beautiful view of a Universe whose richness could not have been imagined. A
string of new discoveries has come from this fleet of new space-based
instruments and observatories, and each new insight has been firmly placed
within the existing framework of understanding by astronomers. Meanwhile the
impressive arsenal of today’s ground-based facilities bears witness to the
continuing success of the modern large and highly evolved versions of the
traditional telescope. This book will enable you to peer through these
exotic new telescopes and see some of the more spectacular images that have
become the icons of modern astronomy. By expanding your vision beyond the
visible into an array of “colors” that span the full spectrum of light, you
will be able to gain a more complete picture of the Universe than has ever
been possible before. These images are truly a legacy to be appreciated by
everyone. Obtained using facilities built by governments and public
institutions across the globe, they allow us all to better understand our
place in a spectacular Universe, once hidden, but now revealed. This book is divided into nine chapters dealing
with various aspects of the unseen Universe. The first three discuss
the way we perceive the Universe, using our eyes and with telescopes on the
ground and in space. The next five chapters each discuss a wavelength band,
starting with the most familiar, visible light, and then moving outwards on
each side of the spectrum into the less familiar: infrared, ultraviolet,
radio/microwaves and X-rays/gamma rays. In the final chapter we attempt to
gather the individual threads of the story into one, somewhat coherent, view
of the totality of the multi-wavelength Universe. |
|
|
Light and Vision: Ours is a Universe of light…The light we see defines the
way we understand the world around us. What is solid and what is
insubstantial, what is bright and what is dark, what is beautiful and what is
ugly. All of these concepts derive from visual cues. But since our vision is
inextricably linked to the nature of the Sun, in a real sense even aesthetics
are deeply rooted in astronomy. Perhaps it is no wonder that images of the
Universe can trigger such a sense of awe. But the
light from the Universe contains so much more than the light we can see for
ourselves... |
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View from the Ground: Astronomy is an observational science. Apart from
the use of space probes in the Solar System, it is not possible to carry out
experiments in situ, and information must be gleaned from light signals
collected by telescopes and measured with instruments such as cameras and
spectrometers, which spread out the light into its constituent wavelengths
and allow a closer study. Most of the telescopes
in existence observe the heavens from the ground — often from remote mountain
tops to get above as much of the Earth’s disturbing atmosphere as possible.
But ground-based telescopes are much more than the well known visible-light
telescopes that collect light from remote stars and galaxies with gigantic
mirrors... |
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|
Space Observations: Astronomical observatories in space have revolutionized
our knowledge of the Universe. They are one amongst the many types of
satellites launched since the beginning of the space age, devoted to a great
variety of applications including Earth observation, communication and
broadcasting, navigation and military, right up to fully habitable space
stations. Space observatories give access to
light that is not visible from the ground and provide an undisturbed view of
the star- and galaxy-studded sky. Expensive yes, but unbeatable in the search
for the elusive photons from the hidden Universe. |
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|
The Visible Universe: The visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum
is the astronomical base camp. This is where people first started to look at
the sky with the naked eye many thousands of years ago and it remains the
reference point for research taking place in all other wavelength bands. The visible band is home to the majority of the starlight
and, although many scientists and engineers are finding ingenious ways to
exploit the non-visible bands, there are still many secrets left to explore
in the visible.... |
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The infrared Universe: The infrared band lies just beyond the
deepest red we can see. This band of the electromagnetic spectrum is a window
onto a cool, dust-filled Universe. By allowing us to peer through the obscuring dust, strewn
between the stars like an interstellar fog, it reveals distant reaches of our
Milky Way hidden outside the visible spectrum. At longer infrared wavelengths the dust itself becomes
luminous, showing us a different facet of the wispy tendrils of tiny grains
that drift through the vastness of space between the stars. Shrouded by these
dust clouds, young stars form and planets like our own are assembled. |
|
|
The Ultraviolet Universe: Ultraviolet light falls beyond
the limits of what we can see at the blue end of the spectrum. In human terms
the word ultraviolet calls to mind images of sore skin resulting from
overexposure to the Sun; an indication of the high energy of this form of
light. The hottest stars in the Universe are
brightest in ultraviolet light. The dusty clouds that give birth
to these massive, luminous objects are in turn sculpted and shaped under the
onslaught of the high energy photons they emit. Ultraviolet
light shows us where the action is in star formation — amongst the young, the
massive and the hot stars. |
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|
The radio and microwave universe: Seen with radio telescopes, the
sky is unrecognizable to a visible-light astronomer. In place of the stars in
the Milky Way there are objects sprinkled throughout the entire Universe. Radio sources are rare but often intrinsically very
powerful, making them detectable at very large distances. The emissions from
these radio galaxies, quasars and titanic stellar explosions are the result
of immensely energetic sub-atomic particles speeding through regions of
twisted magnetic fields. This process is quite different from that producing
the heat radiation from the surfaces of stars and it leads us to the sites of
some of the most violently energetic action in the Universe. |
|
|
The x-ray and high energy universe : Beyond the ultraviolet we reach the
highest energies of the electromagnetic spectrum. From X-rays to the even
more energetic gamma rays, the increasingly rare photons have to be counted
one by one. Only the most dramatic phenomena will
generate light at this far end of the spectrum. This means that X-rays and
gamma rays are our window into the study of cataclysmic processes such as the
explosions of massive stars and the neutron stars and black holes they leave
behind, as well as hot plasmas in galaxy clusters and in nearby stars. |
|
|
The Multi-wavelength universe: Astronomy began as a
visual science. For thousands of years, humans used little more than their
eyes to observe and record the light from the stars. All this changed 400
years ago when Galileo first turned his telescope towards the heavens,
dramatically expanding our ability to see and understand the Universe. Yet,
for the next 350 years, the potential of this magnificent device was limited
to that tiny sliver of the spectrum visible to human eyes. As we have seen in
this book, a series of technological advances over the past 50 years or so
has given us access to the hidden Universe: the cosmic domains of radio
waves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays. Layer by
layer, the cosmic onion has been peeled away to reveal a richness and
complexity that was unimaginable from our long-held visible perspective. We
show the fundamental change in worldview brought about by expanding our
perception to include the full spectrum of light. |
|
Nasas-spitzer:
By IB Times Staff
Reporter
| February 11, 2011 6:11 AM EST
See: (http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/111460/20110211/nasa-north-american-nebula-pelican-spitzer-stars.htm)
A NASA
team has identified about 2,100 young star candidates in a region called the
North American Nebula. The nebula is named after its resemblance to the North
American continent in visible light.
There were only about 200 young stars known before.
NASA's Spitzer
Space Telescope has taken images of the new stars at all stages of development,
from dusty little tots to young adults.
NASA/JPL-Caltech:
A NASA team has identified about 2,100 young star candidates in a region
called the North American Nebula.
Young stars are hidden in
visible-light images as they grow up surrounded by blankets of dust. NASA says
dusty, dark clouds in the visible image become transparent in Spitzer's view.
"One of the things that makes
me so excited about this image is how different it is from the visible image,
and how much more we can see in the infrared than in the visible," says
Luisa Rebull of NASA's Spitzer Science Center at the California
Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif. "The Spitzer image reveals a
wealth of detail about the dust and the young stars here."
http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/image_galleries/collection/hidden_universe/
Revealing a
Hidden Universe: Into The Cosmic Time-Machine:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3IGlvwABZME
http://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/hidden-universe-hd-nasas-spitzer/id252259693
3) Hidden Black Holes
NASA Scientists Conduct Census of Nearby Hidden Black Holes
07.26.06 (http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/integral_blackholes.html)
Scientists on a quest to find hidden black holes in the local universe
have found surprisingly few.
This illustration shows the thick
dust torus that astronomers believe surrounds supermassive black holes and
their accretion discs. When the torus is seen edge-on’ as in this case, much of
the light emitted by the accretion disc is blocked. However, the sharp X-ray
and gamma-ray eyes of INTEGRAL can peer through the thick dust and locate
"hidden" black holes. INTEGRAL's survey of the local universe
searched for hidden black holes but found few, which implies these kinds of
black holes are largely in the more distant (earlier) universe.
+ High resolution
jpg/+ High resolution TIF
image (6 MB) Credit:
ESA / V. Beckmann (NASA-GSFC)
The observation implies that if these hidden black holes exist---and most
scientists are convinced they do---they must be from the more distant, earlier
universe, a concept that has interesting implications for galaxy evolution.
This work constitutes the first census of the highest-energy part of the
X-ray sky, where the most dust-enshrouded black holes are thought to shine. A
team from NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., conducted the census,
comprised of nearly two years of continuous data from the European Space
Agency's International Gamma Ray Astrophysics Laboratory, or INTEGRAL,
satellite.
"Naturally it is difficult to find something we know is hiding well
and which has eluded detection so far," said Volker Beckmann of Goddard
and the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, lead author on a report in an
upcoming issue of The Astrophysical Journal. "INTEGRAL is a telescope that
should see nearby hidden black holes, but we have come up short."
The X-ray sky is thousands to millions of times more energetic than the
visible sky familiar to our eyes. Much of the X-ray activity is from black
holes violently sucking in gas from their surroundings.
Image above: This all-sky map shows regions of
ionized hydrogen gas in the local universe. The hidden black holes detected in
the INTEGRAL survey of high-energy X-ray sources are located within the
diamond-shape marks. Many sources were detected through the line of sight of
the dusty Milky Way galactic plane, which is the bright area stretching across
the center of the entire image from left to right. Click image to enlarge.
Credit: D. Finkbeiner (hydrogen) / ESA, INTEGRAL, V. Beckmann, NASA-GSFC (gamma
ray)
Recent breakthroughs in X-ray astronomy, including a thorough black hole
census with NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer,
have all dealt with lower-energy X-rays. The energy range is roughly 2,000 to
20,000 electron-volts. Optical light, in comparison, is about 2 electron volts.
The INTEGRAL survey is the first of its kind to glimpse into the largely
unexplored higher-energy, or "hard," X-ray regime of 20,000 to 40,000
electron-volts.
"The X-ray background, this pervasive blanket of X-ray light we see
everywhere in the universe, peaks at about 30,000 electron volts, yet we really
know next to nothing about what produces this radiation," said co-author
Neil Gehrels of Goddard.
The theory is that hidden black holes, which scientists call Compton-thick
objects, are responsible for the peak at 30,000 electron volts. These X-rays
are so energetic that they would penetrate even the most dust-enshrouded black
holes yet remain beyond the range of powerful lower-energy X-ray observatories
such as Chandra.
High-energy light in general is harder to focus than optical and lower-energy
(longer-wavelength) forms of light. As a result, INTEGRAL doesn't have the
resolution to make sharp images like Chandra and Hubble can.
"Basically, the higher you go in energy, the harder it is to detect faint
sources," said Chris Shrader of Goddard, another co-author. "This is
why no hard X-ray mission has been able to study many individual objects in the
distant universe. That would require a next-generation telescope. But INTEGRAL
is now the first to resolve the local universe."
INTEGRAL can obtain an unbiased count of black holes in the local
universe by virtue of seeing even those that are hidden. Of all the black hole
galaxies that INTEGRAL detected---that is, galaxies with supermassive black
holes in their cores actively accreting gas---about 40 percent were unobscured
black hole galaxies, called Seyfert 1 galaxies. About 50 percent were somewhat
obscured black hole galaxies called Seyfert 2 galaxies. And less than 10
percent were the heavily shrouded "Compton thick" variety.
This implies that if hidden black holes make up the bulk of the X-ray
background, they aren't local. Why? One reason could be that, in the modern
local universe, these black holes have had time to blow away the gas and dust
that once enshrouded them, leaving them unobscured. This liberation of gas and
dust would have its consequences; it would blow away to influence star and
galaxy formation elsewhere.
"This is just the tip of the iceberg," Beckmann said. "In a few
more months we will have a larger survey completed with the Swift mission. Our
goal is to push this kind of observation deeper and deeper into the universe to
see black hole activity at early epochs. That's the next great challenge for
X-ray and gamma-ray astronomers."
Simona Soldi and Nicolas Produit of the INTEGRAL Science Data Centre near
Geneva, Switzerland, also participated in this result.
Christopher Wanjek
Goddard Space Flight Center
Hiding black hole found ([2])
Astronomers
have detected a stealthy black hole from its effects on an interstellar gas cloud.
This intermediate mass black hole is one of over 100 million quiet black holes
expected to be lurking in our Galaxy. These results provide a new method to
search for other hidden black holes and help us understand the growth and
evolution of black holes.
A research team led by
Shunya Takekawa at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan noticed
HCN-0.009-0.044, a gas cloud moving strangely near the center of the Galaxy
25,000 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Sagittarius. They used
ALMA (Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array) to perform high resolution
observations of the cloud and found that it is swirling around an invisible
massive object.
Takekawa explains,
"Detailed kinematic analyses revealed that an enormous mass, 30,000 times
that of the Sun, was concentrated in a region much smaller than our Solar
System. This and the lack of any observed object at that location strongly
suggests an intermediate-mass black hole. By analyzing other anomalous clouds,
we hope to expose other quiet black holes."
CNN ([3])
Scientists have discovered a "monster black hole" so
massive that, in theory, it shouldn't exist.
It's a stellar black hole — the type that forms after stars
die, collapse, and explode. Researchers had previously believed that the size
limit was no more than 20 times the mass of our sun because as these stars die,
they lose most of their mass through explosions that expel matter and gas swept
away by stellar winds.
This theory has now been toppled by LB-1, the
newly-discovered black hole. Located about 15,000 light years away, it has a
mass 70 times greater than our sun, according to a
press release from the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
The findings were published by Chinese researchers in the journal Nature on Wednesday.
"Black holes of such mass should not even exist in our
galaxy, according to most of the current models of stellar evolution,"
said Liu Jifeng, head of the team that made the discovery. "LB-1 is twice
as massive as what we thought possible. Now theorists will have to take up the
challenge of explaining its formation."
Scientists are now scratching their heads at how LB-1 got
so huge.
The Chinese team has proposed a number of theories. LB-1's
sheer size suggests that it "was not formed from the collapse of only one
star," the study said -- instead, it could potentially be two smaller
black holes orbiting each other.
Another possibility is that it formed from a "fallback
supernova." This is when a supernova -- the last stage of an exploding
star -- ejects material during the explosion, which then falls back into the
supernova, creating a black hole.
This fallback formation is theoretically possible, but
scientists have never been able to prove or observe it. If this is how LB-1
formed, then we may have "direct evidence for this process" for the
first time, the study said.
LB-1 is not the biggest black hole ever discovered -- but
it may be the largest of its kind. There are several types of black holes, and
stellar black holes like LB-1 are on the smaller side, according
to NASA. Supermassive black holes are much bigger -- they can be
billions of times the mass of our sun.
Scientists believe supermassive black holes may be
connected to the formation of galaxies, as they often exist at the center of
the massive star systems -- but it is still not clear exactly how, or which
form first.
|
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Sounds: In thinking about gravitational waves as tools for understanding astronomical objects, one point that I stress very strongly is that they cannot be used to form images - GW astronomy cannot be a visual affair! Instead, I advocate thinking about them as sound-like: Gravitational
waves encode in an aural-like manner the dynamics of the source that generates
them. You can almost think of as language-like: The signal that we
"hear" encodes information about its source. Our goal as theorists
and (eventual) GW astronomers is to understand that encoding, and thus to map
those signals we "hear" into a deeper understanding of their source |
NB, this is a very early version of a page
that will provide much information about GW sources and science. We will
continue to develop this material over the next few years. As a consequence,
things are somewhat jumbled at the moment; some files might not work perfectly,
and only a few file formats are currently available.
Equal mass binary gravitational waves.
The following sounds encode the signal that we would measure when two bodies of equal mass spiral into one another. These files are available in wav and mp3 formats. The wav format files seem not quite right - I sometimes find that my wav player doesn't exit cleanly. The mp3 format files appear to pause a bit before they start.
· Two neutron stars, each of 1 ½ solar masses: wav format mp3 format
At the start of this sound, the stars are
separated by about
· Two black holes, each of 2 ½ solar masses: wav format mp3 format
At the start of this sound, the black holes
are separated by about
· Two black holes, each of 50 solar masses: wav format mp3 format
At the start of this sound, the black holes are either touching each other or very nearly touching.
Commentary: These sounds are presented in the frequency band that corresponds to LIGO's best sensitivity. For the lighter sources (the neutron stars and the pair of 2 ½ solar mass black holes), this means that we hear the "inspiral" signal - the waves generated while the bodies are relatively far apart and orbiting around one another. We hear the frequency and amplitude "chirp" up because the bodies are spiraling towards one another, eventually being driven to merge. We do not hear the final splat itself in this case because it is not in the region of best sensitivity. (This final merger may be more accessible with future detector upgrades.)
For the heaviest source (the pair of 50 solar mass black holes), the inspiral is at low frequencies that LIGO does not hear very well. However, the final splat is in fact right in band. That "pop" we hear corresponds to the black holes' final thrashing as they settle down into a new, more massive black hole.
Extreme mass ratio binary gravitational waves.
These sounds encode waves generated by the spiral-in of stellar mass compact bodies captured by massive black holes - for example, a 10 solar mass black hole spiraling into a million solar mass black hole. Black holes in this mass range are found in the nuclei of almost every galaxy; sources of this type are one of the key science targets for the NASA/ESA LISA mission.
These files are available at present in wav format only.
Important technical note: The frequencies of these sources (and of LISA's best sensitivity) are far lower than that of the human ear! (The peak sensitivity of LIGO, by contrast, corresponds almost exactly to human audio.) Accordingly, I had to fudge things a bit: All frequencies are shifted by a factor of a few thousand from the way that nature would actually present them. Think of it as the audio equivalent of a "false color" image.
· Sound 1: Initially circular orbit, into rapidly spinning black hole: wav format
· Sound 2: Initially circular orbit, into slowly spinning black hole: wav format
· Sound 3: Initially highly eccentric orbit, into rapidly spinning black hole: wav format
Commentary: The first two sounds illustrate the impact of the large black hole's spin upon the gravitational wave. The sound is modulated - the "buzz" you should hear in the first sound - due to the large black hole's very rapid spin. It's interesting to contrast Sounds 1 and 2 - this modulation is far weaker in Sound 2. Sound 1 also lasts much longer; this is because the black hole's spin has a very strong influence on how far the small body will inspiral before falling into the large black hole. In both of these cases, if the large black hole is one million solar masses, then the orbital radius is initial around 6 - 10 million kilometers; it decreases to a radius of a few million kilometers before the small body plunges into the massive black hole. (A million solar mass black hole would itself have a radius of about 1 ½ - 3 million kilometers.)
The third sound illustrates a very different case. The initial orbit in this case is extremely eccentric - think of a comet's orbit around the sun. Each of the pops you should hear corresponds to the smaller body passing close to the black hole and moving very rapidly. The sequence of pops gets closer together as the eccentricity shrinks. In this calculation, the eccentricity drops all the way to zero, and the final inspiral is perfectly circular. (Note, we now know that this behavior is not quite right; its manifestation here is because Sound 3 was generated using an approximation to the real laws of GW emission. Newer calculations show that the eccentricity shrinks, but is unlikely to reach zero. An updated sound will be posted here before too long.)
Last modified 2 November 2004
Hidden black holes come into view ([4])
Jun 2, 2004
Astronomers
have discovered 31 previously undetected supermassive black holes with a
“virtual” observatory - the first major discovery to be made with the virtual
approach to astronomy. Paolo Padovani of the European Southern Observatory (ESO)
and colleagues at ESO,
Quasars are star-like objects that are thought to be fuelled by supermassive black holes. Padovani and colleagues searched for a rare type quasar known as an obscured quasar. However, these objects - as their name suggests - are partially hidden by clouds of dust and gas, which makes them too faint to be observed by classical methods.
To overcome this problem, the ESO team used the Astrophysical Virtual Observatory (AVO) - a database that combines visible data from the Hubble Space Telescope, near-infrared data from the Very Large Telescope (VLT), and X-ray data from the Chandra observatory. Padovani and co-workers found 68 candidate obscured quasars, and 31 of these had characteristics that suggested they were associated with supermassive black holes.
“This discovery means that so far we might have been underestimating the number of powerful supermassive black holes by at least a factor of two, possibly up to a factor of five,” Padovani told PhysicsWeb. “This has important implications for our understanding of active galactic nuclei and quasars and therefore, given the likely connection between quasar and galaxy formation, for galaxy formation as well.”
The results also demonstrate the potential of the
virtual observatory methods. “One major obstacle in taking spectra of these
sources is their faintness, which puts them beyond the reach of even very large
(8 to
The team now plans to use data from the VLT and the Spitzer Space Telescope, which operates in the far-infrared, to place tighter constraints on the redshift of the sources.
About the author: Belle Dumé is Science Writer at PhysicsWeb
4) Cosmological horizon
The cosmological horizon, (also known as the particle horizon) is the
maximum distance from which particles could have traveled to the observer in the age
of the universe. It
represents the boundary between the observable and the unobservable regions of
the universe.[1] The existence, properties, and
significance of a cosmological horizon depend on the particular cosmological
model being
discussed.
In terms of comoving distance, the particle horizon is equal to
the conformal time η0 that has passed since the Big Bang, times the speed of light c. The quantity η0
is given by,
where a(t) is the scale
factor of the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric, and we have taken the Big Bang to
be at t =
(سَنُرِيهِمْ
آيَاتِنَا فِي الْآفَاقِ وَفِي أَنْفُسِهِمْ حَتَّى يَتَبَيَّنَ لَهُمْ أَنَّهُ
الْحَقُّ أَوَلَمْ يَكْفِ بِرَبِّكَ أَنَّهُ عَلَى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ شَهِيدٌ) (فصلت س 41، آية 53)
(Soon will We show them Our Signs in the
horizons, and in their own souls, until it becomes manifest to them that this
is the Truth. Is it not enough that thy Lord doth witness all things?)
(S. 41, V. 53)
The particle horizon differs from the event horizon in that the particle horizon
represents the largest comoving distance from which light could have reached
the observer by a specific time, while the event horizon is the largest
comoving distance from which light emitted now can ever reach the
observer.[3]
|
Speculative
image of the observable universe The Neighbouring Superclusters |
|
Some parts of the Universe which are currently observable may later be
unobservable due to ongoing expansion.[4][5]
(فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِمَا
تُبْصِرُونَ * وَمَا لَا تُبْصِرُونَ) (الحاقة س 69، الآيتان 38-39)
(So I do call to witness what ye see * And what
ye see not,) (S. 69, V.
38-39)
Some parts of the Universe may simply be too far away for the light from
there to have reached Earth. Due to the expansion of space, at a later time
they could be observed.
The visible universe is somewhat smaller than the observable universe
since we see only light from the cosmic microwave background radiation that was emitted after the time of recombination,
giving us the spherical surface of last scattering (gravitational waves could theoretically allow us to observe
events that occurred earlier than the time of recombination, from regions of
space outside this sphere).
المصادر
1) القرآن الكريم
2) كتب السّنّة
المطهّرة
3) التفاسير:
1) ابن كثير القرشي الدمشقي، عمادالدين
أبي الفداء (ت 774 هجري)، تفسير القرآن العظيم، دار
الفيحاء (دمشق الطبعة الأولى 1414 هـ -1994 م )،
أربع مجلدات.
المراجع
الأجنبية
1.
^ a b http://books.google.com/books?id=kNxeHD2cbLYC&pg=PA447&dq=%22Particle+horizon%22&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22Particle%20horizon%22&f=false Cosmology: the science of the
universe By Edward Robert Harrison, p. 447
2.
^ http://books.google.com/books?id=xma1QuTJphYC&pg=PA418&dq=%22Particle+horizon%22&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22Particle%20horizon%22&f=false General relativity: an introduction
for physicists By Michael Paul Hobson, George Efstathiou, Anthony N. Lasenby, p. 419
3.
^ Lars Bergström and Ariel Goobar:
"Cosmology and Particle Physics", WILEY (1999), page 65. ISBN 0-471-97041-7
4.
^ Using Tiny Particles To Answer Giant
Questions. Science
Friday, 3 Apr 2009.
5.
^ See also Faster
than light#Universal_expansion.
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